[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"blog-article-local-japanese-particle-wa-vs-ga":3,"$fHZsWYl_LcdVZ5GxKwtR-ZqvCZbbUdo2_Fi6R_GQKiQM":2073,"blog-article-cms-japanese-particle-wa-vs-ga":2075,"article-hreflang-japanese-particle-wa-vs-ga":2076,"blog-article-related-japanese-particle-wa-vs-ga":3512},{"id":4,"title":5,"body":6,"description":2052,"extension":2053,"meta":2054,"navigation":2066,"path":2067,"rawbody":2068,"seo":2069,"stem":2070,"__hash__":2071,"timestampUnix":2055,"slug":2056,"h1":2057,"image":2058,"tags":2063,"timestamp":2072,"locale":-1},"content\u002Farticle\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particle-wa-vs-ga.md"," Japanese Particles は and が: Clear Examples and Essential Tips",{"type":7,"value":8,"toc":2021},"minimark",[9,13,24,40,43,46,49,52,75,80,83,187,191,202,205,216,221,232,235,361,364,367,386,389,392,411,416,419,485,488,493,497,508,511,573,576,581,587,590,593,598,601,621,624,629,636,645,649,652,661,668,671,693,700,722,729,733,736,751,758,783,790,793,798,802,813,828,831,848,851,865,869,872,875,951,962,964,968,971,992,995,999,1002,1010,1013,1016,1028,1035,1038,1050,1053,1070,1073,1090,1094,1100,1103,1174,1178,1181,1189,1192,1200,1203,1219,1222,1236,1239,1242,1284,1288,1291,1293,1310,1313,1336,1339,1356,1360,1367,1370,1402,1406,1412,1415,1447,1451,1454,1464,1468,1471,1474,1495,1498,1501,1517,1520,1541,1545,1548,1612,1616,1619,1628,1634,1637,1640,1646,1657,1663,1666,1727,1730,1753,1757,1760,1763,1807,1812,1816,1819,1822,1825,1855,1859,1862,1864,1903,1907,1910,1931,1946,1949,1956,1959,1962,1968,1971,1978,1981,1986,1994,1999,2003,2006,2012,2015],[10,11,12],"p",{},"What's the difference between the Japanese particles は (wa) and が (ga)?",[10,14,15,16,23],{},"That's... somewhat hard to answer. A few linguists tried, and ",[17,18,22],"a",{"href":19,"rel":20},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.amazon.co.jp\u002F%E3%80%8C%E3%81%AF%E3%80%8D%E3%81%A8%E3%80%8C%E3%81%8C%E3%80%8D-%E6%96%B0%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E8%AA%9E%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95%E9%81%B8%E6%9B%B8-1-%E9%87%8E%E7%94%B0-%E5%B0%9A%E5%8F%B2\u002Fdp\u002F487424128X",[21],"nofollow","they ended up writing an entire book",". It's a big topic, to say the least.",[25,26,27,30],"blockquote",{},[10,28,29],{},"The two-second answer:",[31,32,33,37],"ul",{},[34,35,36],"li",{},"は (wa) marks what you're talking about, and can potentially affect several consecutive sentences",[34,38,39],{},"が (ga) marks the thing\u002Fperson doing a sentence's verb, and affects only the specific sentence it appears in",[10,41,42],{},"To give a more thorough answer than that, we're going to have to put on our goggles and go for a dive. We'll start off by laying some linguistic groundwork, see what Japanese people say about は (wa) vs が (ga), and then look at some practical examples.",[10,44,45],{},"More specifically, we'll talk about:",[47,48],"toc",{},[50,51],"hr",{},[25,53,54,59,62],{},[55,56,58],"centered-text",{"bold":57,"underline":57},"","\nForewarning\n",[60,61],"br",{},[10,63,64,65,69,70,74],{},"This article assumes that you can already read hiragana. If not, we applaud your go-getter spirit. Before you read this article, you may want to take a detour to first check out ",[17,66,68],{"href":67},"\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fthe-japanese-alphabets","what hiragana is used for",", then read this article while referencing ",[17,71,73],{"href":72},"\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fthe-japanese-language-hiragana","our hiragana cheat sheet",".",[76,77,79],"h2",{"id":78},"what-is-a-grammatical-particle","What is a grammatical particle?",[10,81,82],{},"If you're not sure what a grammatical particle is, then",[84,85,87,90,105,108,121,124,169,172,177],"accordion",{"heading":86},"Click me",[10,88,89],{},"In English, we have these things called prepositions. They're little words that come before a direction or location. For example:",[31,91,92,99],{},[34,93,94,98],{},[95,96,97],"u",{},"in"," Japan",[34,100,101,104],{},[95,102,103],{},"at"," Daiso",[10,106,107],{},"Particles are kind of like prepositions, with two notable differences:",[31,109,110,118],{},[34,111,112,113,117],{},"Particles go ",[114,115,116],"em",{},"after"," the word they modify",[34,119,120],{},"Particles can mark much more than location",[10,122,123],{},"For example, here are two other Japanese particles we've explored in detail:",[31,125,126,149],{},[34,127,128,132,133],{},[17,129,131],{"href":130},"\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particle-ni","に (ni)"," indicates a destination\n",[31,134,135],{},[34,136,137,142,144,145,148],{},[138,139],"typo",{"lang":140,"syntax":141},"ja","弟[おとうと] は \u003Cu>学校[がっこう] に\u003C\u002Fu> 行[い,いく]った{。}",[60,143],{},"\n My younger brother went \n",[95,146,147],{},"\nto school\n","\n.\n",[34,150,151,155,156],{},[17,152,154],{"href":153},"\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particle-wo-direct-object","を (wo)"," marks the direct object of a sentence—the thing that's receiving the action described by the verb\n",[31,157,158],{},[34,159,160,163,165,166,148],{},[138,161],{"lang":140,"syntax":162},"学生[がくせい] は \u003Cu>日本語[にほんご] を\u003C\u002Fu> 勉強[べんきょう] しています{。}",[60,164],{},"\n The students are studying \n",[95,167,168],{},"\nJapanese\n",[10,170,171],{},"So, essentially:",[25,173,174],{},[10,175,176],{},"Japanese particles are little grammatical tags that get tacked onto the end of words\u002Fphrases in order to show the grammatical role those words\u002Fphrases are playing in a particular sentence.",[10,178,179],{},[114,180,181,182,186],{},"(If you want a more detailed explanation than this, check out ",[17,183,185],{"href":184},"\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particles-guide","our master post on Japanese particles",")",[76,188,190],{"id":189},"a-crash-course-into-the-basics-of-は-wa-and-が-ga","A crash course into the basics of は (wa) and が (ga)",[10,192,193,194,197,198,201],{},"If you want a super exhaustive look at all the different usages of は (wa) and が (ga), check out our ",[17,195,196],{"href":184},"master post on Japanese particles",". We went ham. If that post was a book, it'd go ",[114,199,200],{},"thunk"," when you dropped it on a table.",[10,203,204],{},"Here, we're going to be more concise.",[10,206,207,208,211,212,215],{},"We're talking about the ",[114,209,210],{},"difference"," between は (wa) and が (ga), so instead of giving you a laundry list of ",[114,213,214],{},"alllllllll"," the stuff that each particle can do, we're going to focus on disambiguating them.",[217,218,220],"h3",{"id":219},"the-purpose-of-が-ga","The purpose of が (ga)",[10,222,223,224,231],{},"In Japanese, が (ga) is what's called a ",[17,225,228],{"href":226,"rel":227},"https:\u002F\u002Fja.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002F%E5%8A%A9%E8%A9%9E#%E6%A0%BC%E5%8A%A9%E8%A9%9E",[21],[138,229],{"lang":140,"syntax":230},"各助詞[かくじょし]",", a \"case\" particle. Case particles attach to nouns (or noun phrases) in order to show the role they play in a sentence.",[10,233,234],{},"There are several different grammatical cases, but here's a few basic ones:",[236,237,238,254],"table",{},[239,240,241],"thead",{},[242,243,244,248,251],"tr",{},[245,246,247],"th",{},"Grammatical case",[245,249,250],{},"Generally used to...",[245,252,253],{},"Example in a sentence",[255,256,257,282,311,338],"tbody",{},[242,258,259,267,270],{},[260,261,262],"td",{},[17,263,266],{"href":264,"rel":265},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FNominative_case",[21],"Nominative case",[260,268,269],{},"Indicate which noun is the subject of a sentence",[260,271,272,273,275,276,186],{},"The thing doing a verb ",[60,274],{}," (",[114,277,278,281],{},[95,279,280],{},"I"," gave a postcard to you in Kurashiki.",[242,283,284,291,299],{},[260,285,286],{},[17,287,290],{"href":288,"rel":289},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FAccusative_case",[21],"Accusative case",[260,292,293,294],{},"Indicate which noun is ",[17,295,298],{"href":296,"rel":297},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.m.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FObject_(grammar)#Types",[21],"the direct object",[260,300,301,302,275,304,186],{},"The thing you do a verb \"to\" ",[60,303],{},[114,305,306,307,310],{},"I gave ",[95,308,309],{},"a postcard "," to you in Kurashiki.",[242,312,313,320,326],{},[260,314,315],{},[17,316,319],{"href":317,"rel":318},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FDative_case",[21],"Dative case",[260,321,293,322],{},[17,323,325],{"href":296,"rel":324},[21],"the indirect object",[260,327,328,329,275,331,186],{},"The direction\u002Frecipient of an action ",[60,330],{},[114,332,333,334,337],{},"I gave a postcard to ",[95,335,336],{},"you"," in Kurashiki.",[242,339,340,347,350],{},[260,341,342],{},[17,343,346],{"href":344,"rel":345},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FAdpositional_case",[21],"Prepositional case",[260,348,349],{},"Indicate where something takes place",[260,351,352,353,275,355,186],{},"In\u002Fat\u002Fon ... ",[60,354],{},[114,356,357,358,74],{},"I gave a postcard to you in ",[95,359,360],{},"Kurashiki",[10,362,363],{},"Verbs are the lifeblood of Japanese sentences, and case markers show how a particular word or phrase in a sentence is related to the main verb of that sentence.",[10,365,366],{},"If we analyze the above example sentence from this \"how things are related to the verb\" perspective, we could say that:",[31,368,369],{},[34,370,371,372],{},"The main verb is \"to give\"\n",[31,373,374,377,380,383],{},[34,375,376],{},"\"I\" am the one who was doing the giving",[34,378,379],{},"\"The postcard\" is the thing that was given",[34,381,382],{},"\"You\" are the person that the thing was given to",[34,384,385],{},"\"Kurashiki\" is where the giving happened",[10,387,388],{},"Make sense yet? Kinda sorta?",[10,390,391],{},"We use these same cases in English, so they should make some intuitive sense to you. The difference is that English uses word order to show the case of words, whereas Japanese makes you use a particle to physically mark the case of each word or phrase.",[25,393,394,397],{},[10,395,396],{},"The purpose of が (ga) is to mark the subject of a sentence's verb:",[31,398,399,406],{},[34,400,401,402,405],{},"The thing that ",[114,403,404],{},"does"," something",[34,407,401,408,405],{},[114,409,410],{},"is",[412,413,415],"h4",{"id":414},"some-japanese-examples","Some Japanese examples",[10,417,418],{},"We've been in the world of theory for a while, so let's get hands on. Look through the following Japanese sentences and think about what が (ga) is doing in each one:",[31,420,421,437,453,469],{},[34,422,423,426,428,429],{},[138,424],{"lang":140,"syntax":425},"昔々[むかしむかし] ある ところ に おじいさん と おばあさん \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> い[,いる]ました{。}",[60,427],{},"\nA long time ago, in a certain place, there was an old man and an old woman.\n",[31,430,431,434],{},[34,432,433],{},"The verb of the sentence is いました, \"there was\", talking about the existence of something",[34,435,436],{},"The old man and old woman are the things that existed",[34,438,439,442,444,445],{},[138,440],{"lang":140,"syntax":441},"月[つき] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 綺麗[きれい] です ね",[60,443],{},"\nThe moon is beautiful, isn't it?\n",[31,446,447,450],{},[34,448,449],{},"The verb† of the sentence is 綺麗です (beautiful\u002Fto be beautiful)",[34,451,452],{},"The moon is the thing that is beautiful",[34,454,455,458,460,461],{},[138,456],{"lang":140,"syntax":457},"先生[せんせい] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 目[め] を 瞬[またた,またたく]き ながら わたし を 見[み,みる]た{。}",[60,459],{},"\nThe teacher, blinking, looked at me.\n",[31,462,463,466],{},[34,464,465],{},"The verb of the sentence is 見た (to look {at})",[34,467,468],{},"The teacher is the person doing the looking",[34,470,471,474,476,477],{},[138,472],{"lang":140,"syntax":473},"その 言葉[ことば] を 聞[き,きく]いた 瞬間[しゅんかん]{、}頭[あたま] の 中[なか] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 真っ白[まっしろ] に なっ[,なる]た{。}",[60,475],{},"\nWhen I heard those words, my mind (head) went blank (white).\n",[31,478,479,482],{},[34,480,481],{},"The verb of the sentence is なった (to become)",[34,483,484],{},"Your head\u002Fmind is the thing that underwent the change",[10,486,487],{},"This can get somewhat complex because there are different types of verbs and Japanese sometimes decides that something should function as a verb when English doesn't think so (†looking at \"beautiful\" up there in the second example sentence!), but this should hopefully be relatively straightforward.",[25,489,490],{},[10,491,492],{},"A verb belongs to a sentence, and が (ga) attaches to the thing that is, or is doing, that sentence's verb.",[217,494,496],{"id":495},"the-purpose-of-は-wa","The purpose of は (wa)",[10,498,499,500,507],{},"In Japanese, は (wa) is what's called a ",[17,501,504],{"href":502,"rel":503},"https:\u002F\u002Fja.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002F%E5%8A%A9%E8%A9%9E#%E4%BF%82%E5%8A%A9%E8%A9%9E",[21],[138,505],{"lang":140,"syntax":506},"係助詞[かかりじょし]",", a \"binding\" particle. Binding particles \"bind\" to other words\u002Fparticles, \"garnishing\" them with some sort of additional nuance. The nuance added by は (wa) in particular is to promote something from being merely a word in a sentence to being the topic of a conversation.",[10,509,510],{},"That's clear as mud, so do me a favor and read this riveting dialogue:",[31,512,513,523,531,538,545,552,559,566],{},[34,514,515,519,520],{},[516,517,518],"span",{},"Alex",": ",[114,521,522],{},"Did you see Serena Williams yesterday!",[34,524,525,519,528],{},[516,526,527],{},"Jamie",[114,529,530],{},"Yeah, she was incredible! That rally in the second set was insane.",[34,532,533,519,535],{},[516,534,518],{},[114,536,537],{},"I know, right? The way she saved those break points was unbelievable.",[34,539,540,519,542],{},[516,541,527],{},[114,543,544],{},"And her backhand down the line? Pure perfection.",[34,546,547,519,549],{},[516,548,518],{},[114,550,551],{},"Totally. But I thought she might lose after dropping the third set.",[34,553,554,519,556],{},[516,555,527],{},[114,557,558],{},"Same here, but she came back strong in the fourth. That tie-breaker was intense!",[34,560,561,519,563],{},[516,562,518],{},[114,564,565],{},"It really was. I love how she kept her composure under pressure.",[34,567,568,519,570],{},[516,569,527],{},[114,571,572],{},"Me too. She definitely deserved that win. What a player!",[10,574,575],{},"And now, the last piece of the puzzle you need to understand は (wa):",[25,577,578],{},[10,579,580],{},"What are Jamie and Alex talking about?",[10,582,583,584,586],{},"\"Serena Williams (tennis match) yesterday\" is the contextual backdrop that binds all eight of those sentences together. While it's only actually ",[114,585,97],{}," the first sentence, it is nevertheless an integral part of all of the other sentences—it's what connects them.",[10,588,589],{},"With this in mind, you might think of the topic as being \"above\" an individual sentence. It's kind of like a spotlight, or a billboard, or anything else you can imagine that \"focuses\" the conversation on something.",[10,591,592],{},"Or, simply put:",[25,594,595],{},[10,596,597],{},"The topic is what we're talking about.",[10,599,600],{},"And with that very simple definition in mind, look at these two Japanese sentences:",[31,602,603,612],{},[34,604,605,606,609,611],{},"A: ",[138,607],{"lang":140,"syntax":608},"お 寿司[すし] は 好[す]き です か",[60,610],{},"Do (you) like sushi?",[34,613,614,615,618,620],{},"B: ",[138,616],{"lang":140,"syntax":617},"うん{、}好[す]き です{。}",[60,619],{}," Yes, (I) like. †",[10,622,623],{},"And ask yourself: Why doesn't the word \"お寿司\" need to be in the second sentence?",[10,625,626],{},[114,627,628],{},"It's because \"sushi\" has already been established as the topic of conversation!",[10,630,631,632,635],{},"You ",[114,633,634],{},"know"," we're talking about sushi, and not pizza or raw spaghetti noodles, because お寿司 has been marked with the particle は. This took お寿司 from being merely an element one sentence—the thing that is related to 好きですか—and elevated it being the topic of the conversation—the context that ties a group of sentences together. It's thus already clear that the comment \"I like\" pertains to \"sushi\", so there's no need to redundantly mention \"sushi\" again.",[10,637,638],{},[114,639,640,641,644],{},"† While English requires us to point back to the topic by saying \"I like ",[95,642,643],{},"it","\", Japanese makes no such imposition. The word \"it\" does not exist in the Japanese sentence. It literally just says \"I like\".",[412,646,648],{"id":647},"why-topicalization-causes-confusion","Why \"topicalization\" causes confusion",[10,650,651],{},"As we said up above, binding particles bind to other words\u002Fparticles: there was an original particle, which was doing its own thing, and then は \"binded\" to it, giving it some additional nuance.",[10,653,654,655,660],{},"Shown below (",[17,656,659],{"href":657,"rel":658},"https:\u002F\u002Fchasoblogjapan.com\u002Fhatoga\u002F",[21],"source","), this \"binding\" process has some important implications for Japanese grammar:",[662,663],"img",{"src":664,"width":665,"height":666,"alt":667},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-particles-wa-vs-ga-topicalization.jpeg",1676,996,"A chart showing what happens to different Japanese particles when they get particalized",[10,669,670],{},"What this chart is showing is how は \"binds\" to some of Japanese's case-marking particles:",[31,672,673,676,683],{},[34,674,675],{},"In most cases, は buddies up alongside the particle it binds to: when you topicalize に, you get には",[34,677,678,679,682],{},"With が and を, for whatever reason, は ",[114,680,681],{},"replaces"," the particle it binds to: topicalized が \"should\" become がは, but Japanese people actually just say は",[34,684,685],{},[114,686,687,688,186],{},"(The zero particle is beyond the scope of this post, but you can read about it ",[17,689,692],{"href":690,"rel":691},"https:\u002F\u002Ftwpl.library.utoronto.ca\u002Findex.php\u002Ftwpl\u002Farticle\u002Fview\u002F6178\u002F3167",[21],"here",[10,694,695,696,699],{},"And, if I had to guess, I'd say that ",[114,697,698],{},"this"," is why people get confused about が (ga) and は (wa):",[701,702,703,711],"ol",{},[34,704,705,706,710],{},"When you see は, sometimes it is \"actually\" ",[707,708,709],"del",{},"が","は—a topicalized subject marker",[34,712,713,714],{},"In this case, there are two jobs being done:\n",[31,715,716,719],{},[34,717,718],{},"The invisible が is still carrying out its original function of saying \"that word is the subject of this sentence\"",[34,720,721],{},"The visible は is adding nuance, saying \"that word is also the topic of the conversation that this sentence is contributing to\"",[10,723,724,725,728],{},"So は is ",[114,726,727],{},"not"," marking a subject... but it looks like it is, because the が it's attached to is invisible.",[76,730,732],{"id":731},"the-key-difference-between-は-wa-and-basically-every-other-particle-including-が-ga","The key difference between は (wa) and basically every other particle, including が (ga)",[10,734,735],{},"However technical we might get, and however many example sentences we might give, all of the differences between は (wa) and が (ga) basically boil down to one thing:",[31,737,738,745],{},[34,739,740,741],{},"が (ga) is a ",[742,743,744],"strong",{},"case-marking particle",[34,746,747,748],{},"は (wa) is a ",[742,749,750],{},"binding particle",[10,752,753,754,757],{},"This is ",[114,755,756],{},"super"," important. は (wa) and が (ga) are both particles, but they are used for very different reasons:",[31,759,760,769],{},[34,761,762,765,766],{},[742,763,764],{},"Case-marking particles"," simply specify the role that a particular word or phrase plays within a sentence: when marking a word with が (ga), you're acknowledging\u002Fclarifying that ",[114,767,768],{},"this is the thing that does, or is, the sentence's verb",[34,770,771,774,775],{},[742,772,773],{},"Binding particles"," have less to do with the grammatical nuts and bolts of a specific sentence and more to do with the speaker's perspective of that sentence: when marking a word は (wa), you're saying that ",[114,776,777,779,780,782],{},[95,778,698],{}," is the bigger topic at hand—this sentence, and perhaps the previous one or the next few, should be seen as being a comment on ",[95,781,698],{}," thing",[10,784,785,786,789],{},"Whereas you can choose what is going to be the topic of conversation, you ",[114,787,788],{},"can't"," choose who did or was something. Imagine that you're working behind the scenes for a theatre production: You can choose where to aim the spotlight, but you can't choose which actor is eating a cake.",[10,791,792],{},"In other words:",[25,794,795],{},[55,796,797],{},"\n が (ga) is a simple label. は (wa) is an intentional promotion. \n",[217,799,801],{"id":800},"putting-subjects-and-topics-together","Putting subjects and topics together",[10,803,804,805,808,809,812],{},"The last piece of the puzzle is that the topic and subject of a sentence ",[114,806,807],{},"can"," overlap, but they don't ",[114,810,811],{},"have"," to:",[31,814,815,818],{},[34,816,817],{},"If two people are talking about John Travolta, then they're naturally going to make many sentences in which John Travolta is the subject.",[34,819,820,821,824,825],{},"A sentence can still be understood to be related to John Travolta, even if he isn't the subject of the sentence: in this conversation, ",[114,822,823],{},"I just don't like that kind of movie"," would be understood to mean ",[114,826,827],{},"I don't like the kind of movie that John Travolta stars in",[10,829,830],{},"To put all that together, consider this sentence:",[31,832,833],{},[34,834,835,838,840],{},[138,836],{"lang":140,"syntax":837},"キリン は 首[くび] が 長[なが]い です{。}",[60,839],{},[31,841,842,845],{},[34,843,844],{},"は (wa) is attached to キリン (giraffe), indicating that we are talking about giraffes",[34,846,847],{},"が (ga) is attached to 首 (neck), indicating that necks are the thing that is 長いです (long)",[10,849,850],{},"As such, you might translate this sentence in a few ways, ranging from more literal to more natural:",[31,852,853,856,859,862],{},[34,854,855],{},"Giraffes—necks are long",[34,857,858],{},"Giraffes? Their necks are long.",[34,860,861],{},"As for giraffes, they have long necks.",[34,863,864],{},"Giraffes have long necks.",[217,866,868],{"id":867},"and-now-a-kind-of-ridiculous-side-by-side-of-topics-and-everything-else","And now a kind of ridiculous side-by-side of \"topics\" and \"everything else\"",[10,870,871],{},"Imagine that you're playing some party game where there are a bunch of people standing in a circle, and they take turns running into the middle of a circle, writing something on a whiteboard, and then holding the white board up. Everybody looks to see what is written and then writes whatever the first thing that comes to their mind is.",[10,873,874],{},"Here's my depiction of such a scene:",[31,876,877],{},[34,878,879,882,884,885],{},[138,880],{"lang":140,"syntax":881},"キリン は・・・",[60,883],{},"\nThe person in our proverbial party game writes \"giraffe\" on a whiteboard and holds it up high, for everyone to see. The other party goers say:\n",[31,886,887,896,905,914,923],{},[34,888,889,890,893,895],{},"Person A → ",[138,891],{"lang":140,"syntax":892},"首[くび] が 長[なが]い {。}",[60,894],{},"Necks are long",[34,897,898,899,902,904],{},"Person B → ",[138,900],{"lang":140,"syntax":901},"背[せ] が 高[たか]い {。}",[60,903],{},"Height is tall",[34,906,907,908,911,913],{},"Person C → ",[138,909],{"lang":140,"syntax":910},"高[たか]い 木の葉[きのは] を 食[た]べる{。}",[60,912],{},"Eat leaves from tall trees",[34,915,916,917,920,922],{},"Person D → ",[138,918],{"lang":140,"syntax":919},"1[いち] 日[にち] に 4[よん]～ 6[ろく] 時間[じかん] しか 寝[ね,ねる]ない{。}",[60,921],{},"Only sleep for 4–6 hours per day",[34,924,925,926,929,931,932,934],{},"Person E → ",[138,927],{"lang":140,"syntax":928},"食[た,たべる]べた ことが ない{。}",[60,930],{},"(I) haven't eaten (one) before",[60,933],{},[114,935,936,937,939,940,943,944,939,947,950],{},"(Note: In the first four sentences, there was an implicit ",[707,938,709],{},"は (",[707,941,942],{},"ga","wa); in this sentence, there is an implicit ",[707,945,946],{},"を",[707,948,949],{},"wo","wa))",[10,952,953,954,957,958,961],{},"The word ",[114,955,956],{},"giraffe"," (キリン) isn't in any of those sentences, but all of them are ",[114,959,960],{},"about"," giraffes. That's the power of は (wa).",[50,963],{},[76,965,967],{"id":966},"when-to-use-は-wa-in-a-sentence","When to use は (wa) in a sentence",[10,969,970],{},"While there are certain phrases and grammar points that use は (wa), there are six main situations in which you can meaningfully choose to use は (wa) over が (ga) in a sentence.",[10,972,973,974,979,980,985,986,991],{},"I've condensed this section from about a dozen different Japanese resources, but three most helpful ones were ",[17,975,978],{"href":976,"rel":977},"https:\u002F\u002Fcore.ac.uk\u002Fdownload\u002Fpdf\u002F234726762.pdf",[21],"this textbook for Japanese teachers",", ",[17,981,984],{"href":982,"rel":983},"https:\u002F\u002Fhermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp\u002Fhermes\u002Fir\u002Fre\u002F71055\u002Fgengo0057000250.pdf",[21],"this research paper",", and ",[17,987,990],{"href":988,"rel":989},"https:\u002F\u002Fsoar-ir.repo.nii.ac.jp\u002Frecord\u002F16271\u002Ffiles\u002FInternationalStudent03-04.pdf",[21],"this handout from Shinshuu university"," (will auto download a .pdf!). If you're at an ~intermediate level of Japanese, feel free to go through them! They're wonderful.",[10,993,994],{},"You'll notice that some of these categories overlap, or that you could seemingly justifiably choose both が (ga) and は (wa) in some sentences. This isn't a clear-cut science: が (ga) or は (wa) can often both correctly complete a sentence, they just bring a different nuance.",[217,996,998],{"id":997},"use-は-wa-to-reference-already-mentioned-information","Use は (wa) to reference already-mentioned information",[10,1000,1001],{},"As a native English speaker, this one will be intuitive for you. We have the exact same rule with \"a\" and \"the\":",[31,1003,1004,1007],{},[34,1005,1006],{},"Use \"a\" to introduce new information into a conversation",[34,1008,1009],{},"Use \"the\" to point back to information that you have already mentioned, or that you know the other party is aware of",[10,1011,1012],{},"In the exact same way as \"the\", the particle は (wa) is used in Japanese to refer back to things you have already mentioned.",[10,1014,1015],{},"For example:",[31,1017,1018],{},[34,1019,1020,1023,1025,1027],{},[138,1021],{"lang":140,"syntax":1022},"昔々[むかしむかし]{、}おじいさん と おばあさん\u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>おっ[,おる]た{。}おじいさん \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 山[やま] へ 芝[しば] 刈[が]り に{、}おばあさん\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong>川[かわ] へ 洗濯[せんたく] に 行[い,いく]った{。}",[60,1024],{},[60,1026],{},"\n\n\nOnce upon a time, there lived an old man and an old woman. The old man went to the mountains to cut firewood, and the old woman went to the river to do the laundry.\n",[10,1029,1030,1031,1034],{},"Notice how は (wa) is not used until the ",[114,1032,1033],{},"second"," sentence. Once we've established that the old man and woman exist, we can then begin using は (wa) to refer to them.",[10,1036,1037],{},"Here's one more sentence that demonstrates the same logic:",[31,1039,1040],{},[34,1041,1042,1045,1047,1049],{},[138,1043],{"lang":140,"syntax":1044},"家[いえ] に 帰[かえ,かえる]ったら クマ \u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong> い[,いる]た{。}あの クマ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> {（}私[わたし] の{）}晩御飯[ばんごはん] を 食[た,たべる]べて い[,いる]た{。}",[60,1046],{},[60,1048],{},"\n\n\nWhen I returned home, there was a bear. The bear was eating my dinner.\n",[10,1051,1052],{},"Or, to phrase this a bit differently, consider this sentence:",[31,1054,1055],{},[34,1056,1057,1060,1062,1064,1065,1067,1069],{},[138,1058],{"lang":140,"syntax":1059},"サミ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 先生[せんせい] です{。}",[60,1061],{},[60,1063],{},"\n\n\nSami is a teacher. \n",[60,1066],{},[60,1068],{},"\n\n\n→ The decision to use は (wa) here indicates that you believe the listener is aware who Sami is—in other words, you're making a comment about \"old\" information\n",[10,1071,1072],{},"Similarly, you'll use は to make statements of common sense or everyday knowledge: stuff that is (or should presumably be) \"old\" information for everybody:",[31,1074,1075],{},[34,1076,1077,1080,1082,1084,1085,1087,1089],{},[138,1078],{"lang":140,"syntax":1079},"空[そら] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 青[あお,あおい]くて{、}雲[くも] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 白[しろ]い{。}",[60,1081],{},[60,1083],{},"\n\n\nThe sky is blue, and clouds are white. \n",[60,1086],{},[60,1088],{},"\n\n\n→ The choice to use は (wa) here indicates that you don't think you are introducing any new information to the conversation—everybody knows that the sky is blue\n",[217,1091,1093],{"id":1092},"use-は-wa-when-making-judgments","Use は (wa) when making judgments",[10,1095,1096,1097,1099],{},"If you encounter (see, hear, feel, etc.) something and cast judgment upon it or somehow interpret it, use the particle は (wa) to introduce these judgments. While the word \"judgment\" is somewhat strong in English, the point here is just that the statement you are making is somehow rooted in your own subjective perspective—what you've just said may ",[114,1098,727],{}," be true from someone else's perspective.",[10,1101,1102],{},"Notice how the following statements are all things that you could disagree with:",[31,1104,1105,1121,1136,1155],{},[34,1106,1107,1110,1111,1113,1115,1116,1118,1120],{},[138,1108],{"lang":140,"syntax":1109},"あの 桜[さくら]\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong>とても きれい だ{。}","\n \n",[60,1112],{},[60,1114],{},"\n\n\nThat sakura tree is very pretty. \n",[60,1117],{},[60,1119],{},"\n\n\n→ \"Pretty\" is a subjective judgment; you're giving your opinion.\n",[34,1122,1123,1110,1126,1128,1130,1131,1133,1135],{},[138,1124],{"lang":140,"syntax":1125},"納豆[なっとう] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 苦手[にがて] だ{。}",[60,1127],{},[60,1129],{},"\n\n\nI'm not a fan of natto. \n",[60,1132],{},[60,1134],{},"\n\n\n→ As hard as it may be to believe, there are people out there who like natto.\n",[34,1137,1138,1110,1141,1143,1145,1146,1148,1150,1151,1154],{},[138,1139],{"lang":140,"syntax":1140},"ここ の 電車[でんしゃ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> いつも 遅[おく]れる{。}",[60,1142],{},[60,1144],{},"\n\n\nThis train is always late. \n",[60,1147],{},[60,1149],{},"\n\n\n→ Naturally, the train isn't \n",[114,1152,1153],{},"always","\n late. Hyperbolism is subjective! Another person may find that the bus is generally on time.\n",[34,1156,1157,1110,1160,1162,1164,1165,1168,1169,1171,1173],{},[138,1158],{"lang":140,"syntax":1159},"子[こ]ども \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 泣[な]く もの だ{。}",[60,1161],{},[60,1163],{},"\n\n\nChildren cry \n",[114,1166,1167],{},"(it's natural that children cry\u002Fchildren are supposed to cry)","\n. \n",[60,1170],{},[60,1172],{},"\n\n\n→ From this person's perspective, it isn't surprising that a child should cry: they're saying that it is in a child's nature to cry. Anyway, this is a statement you can disagree with.\n",[217,1175,1177],{"id":1176},"use-は-wa-to-introduce-contrast-into-a-statement","Use は (wa) to introduce contrast into a statement",[10,1179,1180],{},"Look at this sentence for a second, and think about how you'd interpret it:",[31,1182,1183],{},[34,1184,1185,1186,74],{},"I didn't tell ",[114,1187,1188],{},"him",[10,1190,1191],{},"This sentence is really saying two things:",[701,1193,1194,1197],{},[34,1195,1196],{},"I didn't tell that man",[34,1198,1199],{},"I did\u002Fmay have told someone else",[10,1201,1202],{},"In linguistics, this is called contrast—and, in Japanese, you use は (wa) to imbue a sentence with this kind of contrast.",[31,1204,1205],{},[34,1206,1207,1110,1210,1212,1214,1215,1168,1217],{},[138,1208],{"lang":140,"syntax":1209},"彼[かれ] に \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 言[い,いう]わなかった。",[60,1211],{},[60,1213],{},"\n\n\nI didn't tell \n",[114,1216,1188],{},[60,1218],{},[10,1220,1221],{},"The reason for this contrast becomes a bit more clear when we see the other half of this kind of sentence:",[31,1223,1224],{},[34,1225,1226,1110,1229,1231,1233,1234],{},[138,1227],{"lang":140,"syntax":1228},"私[わたし] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 猫[ねこ] が 好[す]き だ が{、}弟[おとうと] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 好[す]き じゃ[,じゃ]ない{。}",[60,1230],{},[60,1232],{},"\n\n\nI like cats, but my younger brother doesn't. \n",[60,1235],{},[10,1237,1238],{},"So, as you can see here, we've first established ourselves as the topic and made a comment that applies to ourselves, then quickly changed the topic to something else and made the inverse of the same comment.",[10,1240,1241],{},"Here's two more examples, just for good measure:",[31,1243,1244,1259],{},[34,1245,1246,1110,1249,1251,1253,1254,1256,1258],{},[138,1247],{"lang":140,"syntax":1248},"ひらがな \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 書[か,かける]けます が{、}漢字[かんじ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 書[か,かける]けません{。}",[60,1250],{},[60,1252],{},"\n\n\nI can write hiragana, but not kanji. \n",[60,1255],{},[60,1257],{},"\n\n\n→ You can't see it, but the subject is the same in each clause—it's the same person doing the writing—only the object has changed.\n",[34,1260,1261,1110,1264,1266,1267,1270,1271,1273,1275,1276,1279,1280,1283],{},[138,1262],{"lang":140,"syntax":1263},"コーヒー \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 嫌[きら]い だ{。}",[60,1265],{},"(I) don't like ",[114,1268,1269],{},"coffee",". ",[60,1272],{},[60,1274],{},"\n→ Just like in that first sentence above, the nuance here isn't ",[114,1277,1278],{},"just"," that you don't like coffee. It's more that while you don't like coffee, there's something else available (such as tea or milk or soda) that you ",[114,1281,1282],{},"do"," like.",[217,1285,1287],{"id":1286},"use-は-wa-to-note-a-characteristic-of-something","Use は (wa) to note a characteristic of something",[10,1289,1290],{},"When you are saying that one thing is a characteristic, attribute, or part of another thing, use は (wa) to connect the owner and attribute. The definition of \"owner\" and \"attribute\" is quite loose, but what we mean here is in situations like \"all thumbs are fingers, but not all fingers are thumbs\"—where A=B is true, but B=A is not necessarily true.",[10,1292,1015],{},[31,1294,1295],{},[34,1296,1297,1110,1300,1302,1304,1305,1307,1309],{},[138,1298],{"lang":140,"syntax":1299},"サミ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> アメリカ人[あめりかじん] だ{。}",[60,1301],{},[60,1303],{},"\n\n\nSami is American. \n",[60,1306],{},[60,1308],{},"\n\n\n→ Importantly, this is a one-way relationship. It's not true that, if there is an American, then they are inevitably Sami. There are more Americans than just Sami.\n",[10,1311,1312],{},"The same thing goes for talking about qualities of people:",[31,1314,1315],{},[34,1316,1317,1110,1320,1322,1324,1325,1327,1329,1330,1335],{},[138,1318],{"lang":140,"syntax":1319},"中島[なかしま] 美[み] 嘉[か] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 格好[かっこう]いい {。}",[60,1321],{},[60,1323],{},"\n\n\nMika Nakashima is cool. \n",[60,1326],{},[60,1328],{},"\n\n\n→ While \n",[17,1331,1334],{"href":1332,"rel":1333},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.youtube.com\u002Fwatch?v=AabAbM_Lmuo",[21],"Mika Nakashima is cool","\n, she does not have a monopoly on cool-ness. There are other cool people.\n",[10,1337,1338],{},"And here's an example of using は (wa) to explain a category:",[31,1340,1341],{},[34,1342,1343,1110,1346,1348,1350,1351,1353,1355],{},[138,1344],{"lang":140,"syntax":1345},"コーギー \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 犬[いぬ] です{。}",[60,1347],{},[60,1349],{},"\n\n\nA corgi is a (type of) dog. \n",[60,1352],{},[60,1354],{},"\n\n\n→ This one might be a bit less intuitive. While it's always true that a corgi is a dog, it isn't always true that if you see a dog it will be a corgi.\n",[217,1357,1359],{"id":1358},"use-は-wa-to-introduce-something-that-applies-to-the-entire-sentence","Use は (wa) to introduce something that applies to the entire sentence",[10,1361,1362,1363,1366],{},"Like most things in life, sentences can come in simpler or more complex forms. When sentences get complex enough to contain multiple parts, we describe them as having ",[114,1364,1365],{},"clauses",": the \"main\" clause is the part of the sentence that could be cut off and turned into an independent sentence, while the the \"subordinate\" clause is the part of the sentence that would no longer be a complete sentence if cut off and left by itself.",[10,1368,1369],{},"Anyway—attach は (wa) to the thing in the beginning of the sentence that is related to the sentence's verb.",[31,1371,1372,1387],{},[34,1373,1374,1110,1377,1379,1381,1382,1384,1386],{},[138,1375],{"lang":140,"syntax":1376},"昨日[きのう] 彼女[かのじょ] が 作[つく,つくる]った ケーキ\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong>{、}とても おいしかった{。}",[60,1378],{},[60,1380],{},"\n\n\nThe cake that the woman made yesterday was very delicious. \n",[60,1383],{},[60,1385],{},"\n\n\n→ The cake is the thing that was very delicious, so it gets marked with は (wa). The sentence would still make sense if you entirely deleted \"彼女が作った\" .\n",[34,1388,1389,1392,1394,1396,1397,1399,1401],{},[138,1390],{"lang":140,"syntax":1391},"彼[かれ] が うち に 来[き,くる]た とき{、}私[わたし] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 出[で,でかける]かけて い[,いる]た{。}",[60,1393],{},[60,1395],{},"\n\n\nWhen he came to our place, I had already gone out. \n",[60,1398],{},[60,1400],{},"\n\n\n→ The point of the sentence is that the speaker had already left their house. \"When he came to our place\" provides more detailed information, but you could delete it and the sentence would still make sense.\n",[217,1403,1405],{"id":1404},"use-は-wa-to-make-negative-notdont-___-statements","Use は (wa) to make negative (\"not\u002Fdon't ___\") statements",[10,1407,1408,1409],{},"While there are a number of exceptions to this, especially in more complex sentences, you'll generally use は (wa) with negative sentences. ",[114,1410,1411],{},"(Note: \"negative\" not as in \"bad\", but as in \"is not\" or \"does not\".)",[10,1413,1414],{},"A few examples:",[31,1416,1417,1427,1437],{},[34,1418,1419,1422,1424,1426],{},[138,1420],{"lang":140,"syntax":1421},"私[わたし] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 知[し,しる]りません{。}",[60,1423],{},[60,1425],{},"\n\n\nI don't know.\n",[34,1428,1429,1432,1434,1436],{},[138,1430],{"lang":140,"syntax":1431},"コーヒー \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 飲[の,のむ]みません{。}",[60,1433],{},[60,1435],{},"\n\n\nI don't drink coffee.\n",[34,1438,1439,1442,1444,1446],{},[138,1440],{"lang":140,"syntax":1441},"残念[ざんねん] ながら{、}お茶[おちゃ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> あり[,ある]ません{。}",[60,1443],{},[60,1445],{},"\n\n\nUnfortunately, there is no tea.\n",[76,1448,1450],{"id":1449},"when-to-use-が-ga-in-a-sentence","When to use が (ga) in a sentence",[10,1452,1453],{},"Here are six situations where the decision to use が (ga) over は (wa) in a sentence is meaningful. These six points are all counterpoints to the above six points introduced for は (wa), so you may wish to review them in tandem.",[10,1455,1456,1457,1460,1461,74],{},"Again, note that the point of this article is ",[114,1458,1459],{},"specifically"," to contrast the usage of が (ga) and は (wa). For a thorough list of grammatical structures where が (ga) is used, refer to the が (ga) section of our ",[17,1462,196],{"href":1463},"\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particles-guide#the-case-particles-%E3%81%8C-%E3%81%AE-%E3%82%92-%E3%81%AB-%E3%81%B8-%E3%81%A8-%E3%81%A7-%E3%81%8B%E3%82%89-and-%E3%82%88%E3%82%8A",[217,1465,1467],{"id":1466},"use-が-ga-to-introduce-new-information-into-a-conversation","Use が (ga) to introduce new information into a conversation",[10,1469,1470],{},"In English, we use \"a\" to introduce new information into a conversation. In exactly the same way, Japanese uses が (ga) for this purpose.",[10,1472,1473],{},"Consider the same two example sentences from the は (wa) section above:",[31,1475,1476,1485],{},[34,1477,1478,1481,1483,1027],{},[138,1479],{"lang":140,"syntax":1480},"昔々[むかしむかし]{、}おじいさん と おばあさん\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong>おっ[,おる]た{。}おじいさん は 山[やま] へ 芝[しば] 刈[が]り に{、}おばあさん は 川[かわ] へ 洗濯[せんたく] に 行[ゆ,ゆく]った{。}",[60,1482],{},[60,1484],{},[34,1486,1487,1490,1492,1494],{},[138,1488],{"lang":140,"syntax":1489},"家[いえ] に 帰[かえ,かえる]ったら クマ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> い[,いる]た{。}あの クマ は {（}私[わたし] たち の{）}晩御飯[ばんごはん] を 食[た,たべる]べて い[,いる]た{。}",[60,1491],{},[60,1493],{},"\n\n\nWhen I returned home, there was a bear. The bear was eating my lunch.\n",[10,1496,1497],{},"And notice how が (ga) is used the first time the old couple and the bear are mentioned, but how は (wa) is used when they are mentioned for a second time.",[10,1499,1500],{},"Similarly, we can invert our example sentence about the teacher:",[31,1502,1503],{},[34,1504,1505,1508,1510,1064,1512,1514,1516],{},[138,1506],{"lang":140,"syntax":1507},"サミ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 先生[せんせい] です{。}",[60,1509],{},[60,1511],{},[60,1513],{},[60,1515],{},"\n\n\n→ The decision to use が (ga) here indicates that you think the listener doesn't know who the teaacher is—in other words, you're providing information that is new to them.\n",[10,1518,1519],{},"Now, kind of a fun one—using what we've said so far, take a stab at this sentence:",[31,1521,1522],{},[34,1523,1524,1527,1529,1531,1532,1535,1536,1538,1540],{},[138,1525],{"lang":140,"syntax":1526},"空[そら] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 青[あお,あおい]い{！}",[60,1528],{},[60,1530],{},"\n\n\nThe sky is \n",[114,1533,1534],{},"blue","\n! \n",[60,1537],{},[60,1539],{},"\n\n\n→ You've used が (ga) with something that is, presumably, common sense. This communicates your surprise: it's contrary to what you'd expected. Perhaps it's been rainy and the sky has been grey for several days—or perhaps you're a dwarf and have spent your entire life underground and are seeing the sky for the first time.\n",[217,1542,1544],{"id":1543},"use-が-ga-when-making-observations","Use が (ga) when making observations",[10,1546,1547],{},"Whereas the sentences in the above section somehow involved the speaker's personal opinion, replacing the は (wa) with が (ga) makes them feel more objective: as if you're simply recording events as they unfold.",[31,1549,1550,1567,1582,1597],{},[34,1551,1552,1553,1556,1557,1559,1561,1562,1564,1566],{},"Observation: ",[138,1554],{"lang":140,"syntax":1555},"雪[ゆき]\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu>降[ふ]って いる{。}"," ",[60,1558],{},[60,1560],{},"\nSnow is falling. ",[60,1563],{},[60,1565],{},"\n→ This is happening, and that fact doesn't change whether you notice, care, or exist.",[34,1568,1569,1110,1572,1574,1576,1577,1579,1581],{},[138,1570],{"lang":140,"syntax":1571},"納豆[なっとう] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> お 椀[わん] に ある{。}",[60,1573],{},[60,1575],{},"\n\n\nThe natto is in a bowl. \n",[60,1578],{},[60,1580],{},"\n\n\n→ This is a factual observation, and you're not passing any sort of judgment on the situation (such as that it would be better for the natto to be in the garbage, instead).\n",[34,1583,1584,1110,1587,1589,1591,1592,1594,1596],{},[138,1585],{"lang":140,"syntax":1586},"電車[でんしゃ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 来[き,くる]た{。}",[60,1588],{},[60,1590],{},"\n\n\nThe train is here. \n",[60,1593],{},[60,1595],{},"\n\n\n→ Again, this is simply an observation: you're standing there on the platform, killing time on your phone, then you hear a horn and look up. The train is in front of you.\n",[34,1598,1599,1110,1602,1604,1606,1607,1609,1611],{},[138,1600],{"lang":140,"syntax":1601},"子[こ]ども \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 泣[な,なく]いて いる{。}",[60,1603],{},[60,1605],{},"\n\n\nThe child is crying. \n",[60,1608],{},[60,1610],{},"\n\n\n→ You're not commenting on whether it's good or bad that the child is crying, or arguing that it is or isn't in children's nature to cry—you're simply stating an observation.\n",[217,1613,1615],{"id":1614},"use-が-ga-to-point-a-finger-pick-something-out-of-a-group-make-an-exclusive-statement","Use が (ga) to point a finger \u002F pick something out of a group \u002F make an exclusive statement",[10,1617,1618],{},"I wrote a few sentences trying to separate \"exclusive が (ga)\" from \"contrastive は (wa)\", but I kept getting tripped up on a certain point: isn't singling one thing out the same as separating it from literally everything else, which is a form of contrast?",[10,1620,1621,1622,1627],{},"So, instead of reading those failed explanations, please observe these two memes I found on ",[17,1623,1626],{"href":1624,"rel":1625},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.reddit.com\u002Fr\u002FFUCKYOUINPARTICULAR\u002F",[21],"a subreddit I won't name on this family-friendly website",":",[662,1629],{"src":1630,"width":1631,"height":1632,"alt":1633},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-particle-wa-vs-ga-lightning.jpeg",1280,672,"A photo of lightning bending to strike a specific apartment, demonstrating the exclusive nature of the Japanese particle ga",[10,1635,1636],{},"Of all the places lightning could have struck, the forces that be picked that one specific guy's couch.",[10,1638,1639],{},"Similarly, the below sentiment is directed at one single person in particular:",[662,1641],{"src":1642,"width":1643,"height":1644,"alt":1645},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-particle-wa-vs-ga-tomcruise.jpeg",828,1023,"A photo demonstrating a woman's joy to be divorced from Tom Cruise, demonstrating the exclusive nature of the Japanese particle ga",[10,1647,1648,1649,1652,1653,1656],{},"The point in the first meme isn't the other rooms that lightning ",[114,1650,1651],{},"could"," have stricken, but the one very specific room it ",[114,1654,1655],{},"did"," strike. Similarly, we don't care about all the men Nicole Kidman is happy to not have in her life—every lumen of joy beaming from her rosy cheeks in this photograph is directed very, very specifically at Tom Cruise.",[10,1658,1659,1660,1662],{},"So anyway, when you want to raise one thing on a podium to the exclusion of everything else—to reach into a box of a hundred plushies and say you want ",[114,1661,698],{}," one in particular—you use が (ga) to do that.",[10,1664,1665],{},"Observe:",[31,1667,1668,1691,1706],{},[34,1669,1670,1110,1673,1675,1677,1678,1168,1680,1682,1684,1685,1688,1689,148],{},[138,1671],{"lang":140,"syntax":1672},"コーヒー \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 嫌[きら]い だ{。}",[60,1674],{},[60,1676],{},"\n\n\n(I) don't like \n",[114,1679,1269],{},[60,1681],{},[60,1683],{},"\n\n\n→ This is the same sentence from up above in the contrastive は (wa) section, but the は (wa) has been swapped out with が (ga). Here, the focus isn't directed to the things you'd \n",[114,1686,1687],{},"rather","\n be drinking. Instead, it's kind of like you just went out on a date with your partner, and they know very well that you don't like coffee, but they still ordered you a coffee. You're emphasizing that you hate, very specifically, \n",[114,1690,1269],{},[34,1692,1693,1110,1696,1698,1700,1701,1703,1705],{},[138,1694],{"lang":140,"syntax":1695},"りんご \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 青森[あおもり] の 特産品[とくさんひん] だ{。}",[60,1697],{},[60,1699],{},"\n\n\nApples are Aomori's specialty. \n",[60,1702],{},[60,1704],{},"\n\n\n→ By using が (ga) here, you're shining a spotlight on apples. Aomori actually produces many things, but for now, we don't care about any of that. We're reducing the world to just two things: Aomori and apples.\n",[34,1707,1708,1110,1711,1713,1715,1718,1719,1721,1723,1724,1726],{},[138,1709],{"lang":140,"syntax":1710},"これ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 私[わたし] の 鉛筆[えんぴつ] だ{。}",[60,1712],{},[60,1714],{},[114,1716,1717],{},"This","\n is my pencil. \n",[60,1720],{},[60,1722],{},"\n\n\n→ Imagine that a supernatural force has shaken up your entire university lecture hall. Nobody is hurt, but all 100 of y'all's pencils have mysteriously been transported from your desk to a box in the middle of the room. You walk up to the box, look for a second, and then see your pencil—you hold it up, triumphantly, and announce: \n",[114,1725,698],{},"\n is your pencil.\n",[10,1728,1729],{},"Now that we've established this point, let's look at the same sentence from up above in the \"use が (ga) for new information\" section:",[31,1731,1732],{},[34,1733,1734,1737,1739,1064,1741,1743,1745,1746,1748,1749,1752],{},[138,1735],{"lang":140,"syntax":1736},"サミ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 先生[せんせい] です{。}",[60,1738],{},[60,1740],{},[60,1742],{},[60,1744],{},"\n\n\n→ When you use が here, the nuance is similarly that there are many people that \n",[114,1747,1651],{},"\n be the teacher, but \n",[114,1750,1751],{},"Sami","\n specifically is the teacher. Imagine you're in a room with several people, and this sentence is the response to \"who\u002Fwhich one is the teacher?\"\n",[217,1754,1756],{"id":1755},"use-が-ga-or-は-wa-to-equate-two-things","Use が (ga)... or は (wa)... to equate two things",[10,1758,1759],{},"Whereas は (wa) is used for one-way relationships (situations where A=B, but B=\u002F=A), が (ga) is used when you can equate things in a two-way fashion (A=B and B=A.)",[10,1761,1762],{},"To give a couple classic examples of this, consider:",[31,1764,1765,1788],{},[34,1766,1767,1770,1772,1774,1775,1777,1779,1780,1783,1784,1787],{},[138,1768],{"lang":140,"syntax":1769},"あの 人[ひと] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> サミ だ{。}",[60,1771],{},[60,1773],{},"\n\n\nThat person is Sami. \n",[60,1776],{},[60,1778],{},"\n\n\n→ Here, it's equally valid to say \n",[114,1781,1782],{},"that person is Sami","\n and \n",[114,1785,1786],{},"Sami is that person","\n. It doesn't matter which way you organize the sentence because thing A and thing B are the same. To indicate this two-way equality, we use が.\n",[34,1789,1790,1793,1795,1797,1798,1800,1802,1803,1806],{},[138,1791],{"lang":140,"syntax":1792},"  東京[とうきょう] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 日本[にほん] の 首都[しゅと] です{。}",[60,1794],{},[60,1796],{},"\n\n\nTokyo is the the capital of Japan. \n",[60,1799],{},[60,1801],{},"\n\n\n→ Again, it would also be accurate to say \n",[114,1804,1805],{},"the capital of Japan is Tokyo","\n. Since we can swap the order of the parts of the statement without making it false, we connect them with が (ga).\n",[10,1808,1809],{},[114,1810,1811],{},"(Note: You can also optionally use は (wa) for two-way relationships, but I've chosen to attribute it to が (ga), just to keep the sections separate.)",[217,1813,1815],{"id":1814},"use-が-ga-to-introduce-something-that-modifies-something-within-a-sentence-but-not-the-entire-sentence","Use が (ga) to introduce something that modifies something within a sentence, but not the entire sentence",[10,1817,1818],{},"This section is tied very closely to は (wa) section above, in which we said は (wa) attaches to the part of a complex sentence that could form a complete sentence in and of itself.",[10,1820,1821],{},"Conversely, attach が (ga) to the thing that is only related to part of a sentence—often something that is adding description to a noun.",[10,1823,1824],{},"As we can see in those same two sentences from above:",[31,1826,1827,1841],{},[34,1828,1829,1110,1832,1834,1381,1836,1838,1840],{},[138,1830],{"lang":140,"syntax":1831},"昨日[きのう] 彼女[かのじょ]\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong>作[つく,つくる]った ケーキは{、}とても おいしかった{。}",[60,1833],{},[60,1835],{},[60,1837],{},[60,1839],{},"\n\n\n→ \"That the woman made\" serves no purpose except to add more information about the word \"cake\", so we attach が (ga) to it. You could also attach の (no) to it, instead, if you prefer.\n",[34,1842,1843,1846,1848,1396,1850,1852,1854],{},[138,1844],{"lang":140,"syntax":1845},"彼[かれ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> うち に 来[き,くる]た とき{、}私[わたし] は 出[で,でかける]かけて い[,いる]た{。}",[60,1847],{},[60,1849],{},[60,1851],{},[60,1853],{},"\n\n\n→ 彼がうちに来た is not a standalone phrase but rather something that adds more specificity to とき. Since \"when he came to our place\" isn't a complete sentence, が gets attached to 彼.\n",[217,1856,1858],{"id":1857},"use-が-ga-with-question-words","Use が (ga) with question words",[10,1860,1861],{},"If you use a question word in a sentence, and it doesn't come before だ・です, attach が (ga) to the question word.",[10,1863,1015],{},[31,1865,1866,1876,1888],{},[34,1867,1868,1110,1871,1873,1875],{},[138,1869],{"lang":140,"syntax":1870},"誰[だれ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 正[ただ,ただしい]しくて{、}誰[だれ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 間違[まちが,まちがう]って いる の か{。}",[60,1872],{},[60,1874],{},"\n\n\nWho is right, and who is wrong?\n",[34,1877,1878,1110,1881,1883,1885,1886],{},[138,1879],{"lang":140,"syntax":1880},"いったい 何[なに] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 起[お,おこる]こって いる の だろ[,だろ]う か{。}",[60,1882],{},[60,1884],{},"\n\n\nWhat in the world is going on?. \n",[60,1887],{},[34,1889,1890,1110,1893,1895,1897,1898,1110,1900],{},[138,1891],{"lang":140,"syntax":1892},"それ の どこ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> いけ[,いける]ない の でしょ[,でしょ]う か{？}",[60,1894],{},[60,1896],{},"\n\n\nWhat's wrong with that? \n",[60,1899],{},[114,1901,1902],{},"(literally, \"the where of that cannot go?\")",[76,1904,1906],{"id":1905},"already-read-like-six-articles-but-still-dont-get-the-difference-between-は-wa-が-ga","Already read like six articles but still don't get the difference between は (wa) が (ga)?",[10,1908,1909],{},"That's OK.",[10,1911,1912,1913,1917,1918,1920,1921,1924,1925,1930],{},"To be totally honest, I started studying Japanese in 2014 and have passed ",[17,1914,1916],{"href":1915},"\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjlpt-n1-overview","the JLPT N1, the highest-level proficiency level test of Japanese",", but I couldn't have written this article off the top of my head. Knowing stuff ",[114,1919,960],{}," a language isn't the same as ",[114,1922,1923],{},"understanding"," the language. If that seems weird—did you know that ",[17,1926,1929],{"href":1927,"rel":1928},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.ym-language-services.com\u002Fen\u002Fthe-order-of-adjectives-in-english\u002F",[21],"English adjectives have a fixed order they're required to go in","?",[31,1932,1933,1940],{},[34,1934,1935,1936,1939],{},"✅ Migachu is a ",[742,1937,1938],{},"cute purple"," mascot.",[34,1941,1942,1943,1939],{},"❌ Migachu is a ",[742,1944,1945],{},"purple cute",[10,1947,1948],{},"Weird, huh? It blew my mind when I learned that.",[10,1950,1951,1952,1955],{},"Basically, what I want to say is that you don't ",[114,1953,1954],{},"need"," to memorize all of this information.",[10,1957,1958],{},"The real way to make progress in Japanese is simply by spending time interacting with it—reading books, watching anime, having conversations, and stuff like that. This should make intuitive sense: it's how you learned your native language, and you speak that language pretty well!",[10,1960,1961],{},"The reason that spending time with Japanese (which we call getting \"input\") is so important is that, when you do so, you will inevitably run into tons of sentences that include は (wa) and が (ga)—such as this one below:",[662,1963],{"src":1964,"width":1965,"height":1966,"alt":1967},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-japanese-particles-wa-vs-ga-immerse.jpeg",1248,1058,"A screenshot from Migaku's Japanese Academy course, showing one of our lessons that introduces the particle が (ga).",[10,1969,1970],{},"And, over time, as you see more and more sentences that include は (wa) and が (ga), it'll just kind of sink in. You'll develop an intuitive feel for how these particles work and what sort of nuance they lend to a sentence.",[10,1972,1973,1974,74],{},"If this is the first time you're hearing about this approach to learning languages, we've actually got ",[17,1975,1977],{"href":1976},"\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Flearn-japanese-with-netflix","an entire guide to learning Japanese with Netflix",[10,1979,1980],{},"Go check that out and try Migaku—it's totally free for 10 days, and you don't need to give us your your credit card information or anything like that 💪",[1982,1983],"prose-button",{"href":1984,"text":1985},"\u002Flearn-japanese","Try Migaku for free",[10,1987,1988,1989,1993],{},"Of course, if you're still a beginner, go ahead and study は (wa) and が (ga) formally! Just know that, eventually, to consolidate that knowledge, at some point you're going to want to start spending time doing things in Japanese. (Migaku actually has a really solid Japanese course, by the way. Alternatively, we've also compiled a list of ",[17,1990,1992],{"href":1991},"\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fbest-japanese-textbooks","the best Japanese textbooks for beginners",".)",[662,1995],{"src":1996,"width":1997,"height":1998,"alt":1967},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-japanese-particles-ga-vs-wa-lesson.jpeg",1018,712,[76,2000,2002],{"id":2001},"conclusion","Conclusion",[10,2004,2005],{},"は (wa) and が (ga) can get pretty complex, but pretty much all of their usages boil down to the same essential two points:",[31,2007,2008,2010],{},[34,2009,36],{},[34,2011,39],{},[10,2013,2014],{},"So long as you get that, it's OK. You'll gradually work out the details, over time, as you spend more time interacting with Japanese media.",[55,2016,2017,2018,2020],{},"\nがんばってね！",[60,2019],{},"\nGood luck!\n",{"title":57,"searchDepth":2022,"depth":2022,"links":2023},2,[2024,2025,2030,2034,2042,2050,2051],{"id":78,"depth":2022,"text":79},{"id":189,"depth":2022,"text":190,"children":2026},[2027,2029],{"id":219,"depth":2028,"text":220},3,{"id":495,"depth":2028,"text":496},{"id":731,"depth":2022,"text":732,"children":2031},[2032,2033],{"id":800,"depth":2028,"text":801},{"id":867,"depth":2028,"text":868},{"id":966,"depth":2022,"text":967,"children":2035},[2036,2037,2038,2039,2040,2041],{"id":997,"depth":2028,"text":998},{"id":1092,"depth":2028,"text":1093},{"id":1176,"depth":2028,"text":1177},{"id":1286,"depth":2028,"text":1287},{"id":1358,"depth":2028,"text":1359},{"id":1404,"depth":2028,"text":1405},{"id":1449,"depth":2022,"text":1450,"children":2043},[2044,2045,2046,2047,2048,2049],{"id":1466,"depth":2028,"text":1467},{"id":1543,"depth":2028,"text":1544},{"id":1614,"depth":2028,"text":1615},{"id":1755,"depth":2028,"text":1756},{"id":1814,"depth":2028,"text":1815},{"id":1857,"depth":2028,"text":1858},{"id":1905,"depth":2022,"text":1906},{"id":2001,"depth":2022,"text":2002},"Learn the difference between the Japanese particles は (wa) and が (ga). This guide simplifies their roles, nuances, and usage with practical examples for all learners.","md",{"timestampUnix":2055,"slug":2056,"h1":2057,"image":2058,"tags":2063},1736480142401,"japanese-particle-wa-vs-ga","は and が: What's the difference between these two Japanese particles?",{"src":2059,"width":2060,"height":2061,"alt":2062},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-japanese-particles-wa-vs-ga-header.jpeg",1080,810,"Two very similar Spidermen looking at each other, surprised to see each other, wondering how they're going to prove which one is which—a similar conundrum to the one Japanese learners experience while dealing with the particles は (wa) and が (ga).",[2064,2065],"grammar","fundamentals",true,"\u002Farticle\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particle-wa-vs-ga","---\ntitle: ' Japanese Particles は and が: Clear Examples and Essential Tips'\ndescription: 'Learn the difference between the Japanese particles は (wa) and が (ga). This guide simplifies their roles, nuances, and usage with practical examples for all learners.'\ntimestampUnix: 1736480142401\nslug: 'japanese-particle-wa-vs-ga'\nh1: \"は and が: What's the difference between these two Japanese particles?\"\nimage:\n  src: '\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-japanese-particles-wa-vs-ga-header.jpeg'\n  width: 1080\n  height: 810\n  alt: \"Two very similar Spidermen looking at each other, surprised to see each other, wondering how they're going to prove which one is which—a similar conundrum to the one Japanese learners experience while dealing with the particles は (wa) and が (ga).\"\ntags:\n  - grammar\n  - fundamentals\n---\n\nWhat's the difference between the Japanese particles は (wa) and が (ga)?\n\nThat's... somewhat hard to answer. A few linguists tried, and [they ended up writing an entire book](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.amazon.co.jp\u002F%E3%80%8C%E3%81%AF%E3%80%8D%E3%81%A8%E3%80%8C%E3%81%8C%E3%80%8D-%E6%96%B0%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E8%AA%9E%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95%E9%81%B8%E6%9B%B8-1-%E9%87%8E%E7%94%B0-%E5%B0%9A%E5%8F%B2\u002Fdp\u002F487424128X). It's a big topic, to say the least.\n\n> The two-second answer:\n>\n> - は (wa) marks what you're talking about, and can potentially affect several consecutive sentences\n> - が (ga) marks the thing\u002Fperson doing a sentence's verb, and affects only the specific sentence it appears in\n\nTo give a more thorough answer than that, we're going to have to put on our goggles and go for a dive. We'll start off by laying some linguistic groundwork, see what Japanese people say about は (wa) vs が (ga), and then look at some practical examples.\n\nMore specifically, we'll talk about:\n\n\u003Ctoc>\u003C\u002Ftoc>\n\n---\n\n> \u003CCenteredText bold underline>Forewarning\u003C\u002FCenteredText>\u003Cbr>\n>\n> This article assumes that you can already read hiragana. If not, we applaud your go-getter spirit. Before you read this article, you may want to take a detour to first check out [what hiragana is used for](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fthe-japanese-alphabets), then read this article while referencing [our hiragana cheat sheet](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fthe-japanese-language-hiragana).\n\n## What is a grammatical particle?\n\nIf you're not sure what a grammatical particle is, then\n\n\u003Caccordion heading=\"Click me\">\n\nIn English, we have these things called prepositions. They're little words that come before a direction or location. For example:\n\n- \u003Cu>in\u003C\u002Fu> Japan\n- \u003Cu>at\u003C\u002Fu> Daiso\n\nParticles are kind of like prepositions, with two notable differences:\n\n- Particles go _after_ the word they modify\n- Particles can mark much more than location\n\nFor example, here are two other Japanese particles we've explored in detail:\n\n- [に (ni)](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particle-ni) indicates a destination\n  - \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"弟[おとうと] は \u003Cu>学校[がっこう] に\u003C\u002Fu> 行[い,いく]った{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr> My younger brother went \u003Cu>to school\u003C\u002Fu>.\n- [を (wo)](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particle-wo-direct-object) marks the direct object of a sentence—the thing that's receiving the action described by the verb\n  - \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"学生[がくせい] は \u003Cu>日本語[にほんご] を\u003C\u002Fu> 勉強[べんきょう] しています{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr> The students are studying \u003Cu>Japanese\u003C\u002Fu>.\n\nSo, essentially:\n\n> Japanese particles are little grammatical tags that get tacked onto the end of words\u002Fphrases in order to show the grammatical role those words\u002Fphrases are playing in a particular sentence.\n\n_(If you want a more detailed explanation than this, check out [our master post on Japanese particles](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particles-guide))_\n\n\u003C\u002Faccordion>\n\n## A crash course into the basics of は (wa) and が (ga)\n\nIf you want a super exhaustive look at all the different usages of は (wa) and が (ga), check out our [master post on Japanese particles](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particles-guide). We went ham. If that post was a book, it'd go _thunk_ when you dropped it on a table.\n\nHere, we're going to be more concise.\n\nWe're talking about the _difference_ between は (wa) and が (ga), so instead of giving you a laundry list of _alllllllll_ the stuff that each particle can do, we're going to focus on disambiguating them.\n\n### The purpose of が (ga)\n\nIn Japanese, が (ga) is what's called a [\u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"各助詞[かくじょし]\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>](https:\u002F\u002Fja.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002F%E5%8A%A9%E8%A9%9E#%E6%A0%BC%E5%8A%A9%E8%A9%9E), a \"case\" particle. Case particles attach to nouns (or noun phrases) in order to show the role they play in a sentence.\n\nThere are several different grammatical cases, but here's a few basic ones:\n\n| Grammatical case                                                      | Generally used to...                                                                                   | Example in a sentence                                                                       |\n| --------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |\n| [Nominative case](https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FNominative_case)      | Indicate which noun is the subject of a sentence                                                       | The thing doing a verb \u003Cbr> (_\u003Cu>I\u003C\u002Fu> gave a postcard to you in Kurashiki._)               |\n| [Accusative case](https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FAccusative_case)      | Indicate which noun is [the direct object](\u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fen.m.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FObject_(grammar)#Types>)   | The thing you do a verb \"to\" \u003Cbr> (_I gave \u003Cu>a postcard \u003C\u002Fu> to you in Kurashiki._)        |\n| [Dative case](https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FDative_case)              | Indicate which noun is [the indirect object](\u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fen.m.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FObject_(grammar)#Types>) | The direction\u002Frecipient of an action \u003Cbr> (_I gave a postcard to \u003Cu>you\u003C\u002Fu> in Kurashiki._) |\n| [Prepositional case](https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FAdpositional_case) | Indicate where something takes place                                                                   | In\u002Fat\u002Fon ... \u003Cbr> (_I gave a postcard to you in \u003Cu>Kurashiki\u003C\u002Fu>._)                         |\n\nVerbs are the lifeblood of Japanese sentences, and case markers show how a particular word or phrase in a sentence is related to the main verb of that sentence.\n\nIf we analyze the above example sentence from this \"how things are related to the verb\" perspective, we could say that:\n\n- The main verb is \"to give\"\n  - \"I\" am the one who was doing the giving\n  - \"The postcard\" is the thing that was given\n  - \"You\" are the person that the thing was given to\n  - \"Kurashiki\" is where the giving happened\n\nMake sense yet? Kinda sorta?\n\nWe use these same cases in English, so they should make some intuitive sense to you. The difference is that English uses word order to show the case of words, whereas Japanese makes you use a particle to physically mark the case of each word or phrase.\n\n> The purpose of が (ga) is to mark the subject of a sentence's verb:\n>\n> - The thing that _does_ something\n> - The thing that _is_ something\n\n#### Some Japanese examples\n\nWe've been in the world of theory for a while, so let's get hands on. Look through the following Japanese sentences and think about what が (ga) is doing in each one:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"昔々[むかしむかし] ある ところ に おじいさん と おばあさん \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> い[,いる]ました{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>A long time ago, in a certain place, there was an old man and an old woman.\n\n  - The verb of the sentence is いました, \"there was\", talking about the existence of something\n  - The old man and old woman are the things that existed\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"月[つき] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 綺麗[きれい] です ね\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>The moon is beautiful, isn't it?\n\n  - The verb† of the sentence is 綺麗です (beautiful\u002Fto be beautiful)\n  - The moon is the thing that is beautiful\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"先生[せんせい] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 目[め] を 瞬[またた,またたく]き ながら わたし を 見[み,みる]た{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>The teacher, blinking, looked at me.\n\n  - The verb of the sentence is 見た (to look {at})\n  - The teacher is the person doing the looking\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"その 言葉[ことば] を 聞[き,きく]いた 瞬間[しゅんかん]{、}頭[あたま] の 中[なか] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 真っ白[まっしろ] に なっ[,なる]た{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>When I heard those words, my mind (head) went blank (white).\n  - The verb of the sentence is なった (to become)\n  - Your head\u002Fmind is the thing that underwent the change\n\nThis can get somewhat complex because there are different types of verbs and Japanese sometimes decides that something should function as a verb when English doesn't think so (†looking at \"beautiful\" up there in the second example sentence!), but this should hopefully be relatively straightforward.\n\n> A verb belongs to a sentence, and が (ga) attaches to the thing that is, or is doing, that sentence's verb.\n\n### The purpose of は (wa)\n\nIn Japanese, は (wa) is what's called a [\u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"係助詞[かかりじょし]\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>](https:\u002F\u002Fja.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002F%E5%8A%A9%E8%A9%9E#%E4%BF%82%E5%8A%A9%E8%A9%9E), a \"binding\" particle. Binding particles \"bind\" to other words\u002Fparticles, \"garnishing\" them with some sort of additional nuance. The nuance added by は (wa) in particular is to promote something from being merely a word in a sentence to being the topic of a conversation.\n\nThat's clear as mud, so do me a favor and read this riveting dialogue:\n\n- [Alex]: _Did you see Serena Williams yesterday!_\n\n- [Jamie]: _Yeah, she was incredible! That rally in the second set was insane._\n\n- [Alex]: _I know, right? The way she saved those break points was unbelievable._\n\n- [Jamie]: _And her backhand down the line? Pure perfection._\n\n- [Alex]: _Totally. But I thought she might lose after dropping the third set._\n\n- [Jamie]: _Same here, but she came back strong in the fourth. That tie-breaker was intense!_\n\n- [Alex]: _It really was. I love how she kept her composure under pressure._\n\n- [Jamie]: _Me too. She definitely deserved that win. What a player!_\n\nAnd now, the last piece of the puzzle you need to understand は (wa):\n\n> What are Jamie and Alex talking about?\n\n\"Serena Williams (tennis match) yesterday\" is the contextual backdrop that binds all eight of those sentences together. While it's only actually _in_ the first sentence, it is nevertheless an integral part of all of the other sentences—it's what connects them.\n\nWith this in mind, you might think of the topic as being \"above\" an individual sentence. It's kind of like a spotlight, or a billboard, or anything else you can imagine that \"focuses\" the conversation on something.\n\nOr, simply put:\n\n> The topic is what we're talking about.\n\nAnd with that very simple definition in mind, look at these two Japanese sentences:\n\n- A: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"お 寿司[すし] は 好[す]き です か\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>Do (you) like sushi?\n- B: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"うん{、}好[す]き です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr> Yes, (I) like. †\n\nAnd ask yourself: Why doesn't the word \"お寿司\" need to be in the second sentence?\n\n_It's because \"sushi\" has already been established as the topic of conversation!_\n\nYou _know_ we're talking about sushi, and not pizza or raw spaghetti noodles, because お寿司 has been marked with the particle は. This took お寿司 from being merely an element one sentence—the thing that is related to 好きですか—and elevated it being the topic of the conversation—the context that ties a group of sentences together. It's thus already clear that the comment \"I like\" pertains to \"sushi\", so there's no need to redundantly mention \"sushi\" again.\n\n_† While English requires us to point back to the topic by saying \"I like \u003Cu>it\u003C\u002Fu>\", Japanese makes no such imposition. The word \"it\" does not exist in the Japanese sentence. It literally just says \"I like\"._\n\n#### Why \"topicalization\" causes confusion\n\nAs we said up above, binding particles bind to other words\u002Fparticles: there was an original particle, which was doing its own thing, and then は \"binded\" to it, giving it some additional nuance.\n\nShown below ([source](https:\u002F\u002Fchasoblogjapan.com\u002Fhatoga\u002F)), this \"binding\" process has some important implications for Japanese grammar:\n\n\u003Cimg src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-particles-wa-vs-ga-topicalization.jpeg\" width=\"1676\" height=\"996\" alt=\"A chart showing what happens to different Japanese particles when they get particalized\"\u002F>\n\nWhat this chart is showing is how は \"binds\" to some of Japanese's case-marking particles:\n\n- In most cases, は buddies up alongside the particle it binds to: when you topicalize に, you get には\n- With が and を, for whatever reason, は _replaces_ the particle it binds to: topicalized が \"should\" become がは, but Japanese people actually just say は\n- _(The zero particle is beyond the scope of this post, but you can read about it [here](https:\u002F\u002Ftwpl.library.utoronto.ca\u002Findex.php\u002Ftwpl\u002Farticle\u002Fview\u002F6178\u002F3167))_\n\nAnd, if I had to guess, I'd say that _this_ is why people get confused about が (ga) and は (wa):\n\n1. When you see は, sometimes it is \"actually\" ~~が~~は—a topicalized subject marker\n2. In this case, there are two jobs being done:\n   - The invisible が is still carrying out its original function of saying \"that word is the subject of this sentence\"\n   - The visible は is adding nuance, saying \"that word is also the topic of the conversation that this sentence is contributing to\"\n\nSo は is _not_ marking a subject... but it looks like it is, because the が it's attached to is invisible.\n\n## The key difference between は (wa) and basically every other particle, including が (ga)\n\nHowever technical we might get, and however many example sentences we might give, all of the differences between は (wa) and が (ga) basically boil down to one thing:\n\n- が (ga) is a **case-marking particle**\n- は (wa) is a **binding particle**\n\nThis is _super_ important. は (wa) and が (ga) are both particles, but they are used for very different reasons:\n\n- **Case-marking particles** simply specify the role that a particular word or phrase plays within a sentence: when marking a word with が (ga), you're acknowledging\u002Fclarifying that _this is the thing that does, or is, the sentence's verb_\n- **Binding particles** have less to do with the grammatical nuts and bolts of a specific sentence and more to do with the speaker's perspective of that sentence: when marking a word は (wa), you're saying that _\u003Cu>this\u003C\u002Fu> is the bigger topic at hand—this sentence, and perhaps the previous one or the next few, should be seen as being a comment on \u003Cu>this\u003C\u002Fu> thing_\n\nWhereas you can choose what is going to be the topic of conversation, you _can't_ choose who did or was something. Imagine that you're working behind the scenes for a theatre production: You can choose where to aim the spotlight, but you can't choose which actor is eating a cake.\n\nIn other words:\n\n> \u003CCenteredText> が (ga) is a simple label. は (wa) is an intentional promotion. \u003C\u002FCenteredText>\n\n### Putting subjects and topics together\n\nThe last piece of the puzzle is that the topic and subject of a sentence _can_ overlap, but they don't _have_ to:\n\n- If two people are talking about John Travolta, then they're naturally going to make many sentences in which John Travolta is the subject.\n- A sentence can still be understood to be related to John Travolta, even if he isn't the subject of the sentence: in this conversation, _I just don't like that kind of movie_ would be understood to mean _I don't like the kind of movie that John Travolta stars in_\n\nTo put all that together, consider this sentence:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"キリン は 首[くび] が 長[なが]い です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  - は (wa) is attached to キリン (giraffe), indicating that we are talking about giraffes\n  - が (ga) is attached to 首 (neck), indicating that necks are the thing that is 長いです (long)\n\nAs such, you might translate this sentence in a few ways, ranging from more literal to more natural:\n\n- Giraffes—necks are long\n- Giraffes? Their necks are long.\n- As for giraffes, they have long necks.\n- Giraffes have long necks.\n\n### And now a kind of ridiculous side-by-side of \"topics\" and \"everything else\"\n\nImagine that you're playing some party game where there are a bunch of people standing in a circle, and they take turns running into the middle of a circle, writing something on a whiteboard, and then holding the white board up. Everybody looks to see what is written and then writes whatever the first thing that comes to their mind is.\n\nHere's my depiction of such a scene:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"キリン は・・・\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>The person in our proverbial party game writes \"giraffe\" on a whiteboard and holds it up high, for everyone to see. The other party goers say:\n  - Person A → \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"首[くび] が 長[なが]い {。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>Necks are long\n  - Person B → \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"背[せ] が 高[たか]い {。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>Height is tall\n  - Person C → \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"高[たか]い 木の葉[きのは] を 食[た]べる{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>Eat leaves from tall trees\n  - Person D → \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"1[いち] 日[にち] に 4[よん]～ 6[ろく] 時間[じかん] しか 寝[ね,ねる]ない{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>Only sleep for 4–6 hours per day\n  - Person E → \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"食[た,たべる]べた ことが ない{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>(I) haven't eaten (one) before\u003Cbr>_(Note: In the first four sentences, there was an implicit ~~が~~は (~~ga~~wa); in this sentence, there is an implicit ~~を~~は (~~wo~~wa))_\n\nThe word _giraffe_ (キリン) isn't in any of those sentences, but all of them are _about_ giraffes. That's the power of は (wa).\n\n---\n\n## When to use は (wa) in a sentence\n\nWhile there are certain phrases and grammar points that use は (wa), there are six main situations in which you can meaningfully choose to use は (wa) over が (ga) in a sentence.\n\nI've condensed this section from about a dozen different Japanese resources, but three most helpful ones were [this textbook for Japanese teachers](https:\u002F\u002Fcore.ac.uk\u002Fdownload\u002Fpdf\u002F234726762.pdf), [this research paper](https:\u002F\u002Fhermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp\u002Fhermes\u002Fir\u002Fre\u002F71055\u002Fgengo0057000250.pdf), and [this handout from Shinshuu university](https:\u002F\u002Fsoar-ir.repo.nii.ac.jp\u002Frecord\u002F16271\u002Ffiles\u002FInternationalStudent03-04.pdf) (will auto download a .pdf!). If you're at an ~intermediate level of Japanese, feel free to go through them! They're wonderful.\n\nYou'll notice that some of these categories overlap, or that you could seemingly justifiably choose both が (ga) and は (wa) in some sentences. This isn't a clear-cut science: が (ga) or は (wa) can often both correctly complete a sentence, they just bring a different nuance.\n\n### Use は (wa) to reference already-mentioned information\n\nAs a native English speaker, this one will be intuitive for you. We have the exact same rule with \"a\" and \"the\":\n\n- Use \"a\" to introduce new information into a conversation\n- Use \"the\" to point back to information that you have already mentioned, or that you know the other party is aware of\n\nIn the exact same way as \"the\", the particle は (wa) is used in Japanese to refer back to things you have already mentioned.\n\nFor example:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"昔々[むかしむかし]{、}おじいさん と おばあさん\u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>おっ[,おる]た{。}おじいさん \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 山[やま] へ 芝[しば] 刈[が]り に{、}おばあさん\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong>川[かわ] へ 洗濯[せんたく] に 行[い,いく]った{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  Once upon a time, there lived an old man and an old woman. The old man went to the mountains to cut firewood, and the old woman went to the river to do the laundry.\n\nNotice how は (wa) is not used until the _second_ sentence. Once we've established that the old man and woman exist, we can then begin using は (wa) to refer to them.\n\nHere's one more sentence that demonstrates the same logic:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"家[いえ] に 帰[かえ,かえる]ったら クマ \u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong> い[,いる]た{。}あの クマ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> {（}私[わたし] の{）}晩御飯[ばんごはん] を 食[た,たべる]べて い[,いる]た{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  When I returned home, there was a bear. The bear was eating my dinner.\n\nOr, to phrase this a bit differently, consider this sentence:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"サミ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 先生[せんせい] です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  Sami is a teacher. \u003Cbr>\n  → The decision to use は (wa) here indicates that you believe the listener is aware who Sami is—in other words, you're making a comment about \"old\" information\n\nSimilarly, you'll use は to make statements of common sense or everyday knowledge: stuff that is (or should presumably be) \"old\" information for everybody:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"空[そら] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 青[あお,あおい]くて{、}雲[くも] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 白[しろ]い{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  The sky is blue, and clouds are white. \u003Cbr>\n  → The choice to use は (wa) here indicates that you don't think you are introducing any new information to the conversation—everybody knows that the sky is blue\n\n### Use は (wa) when making judgments\n\nIf you encounter (see, hear, feel, etc.) something and cast judgment upon it or somehow interpret it, use the particle は (wa) to introduce these judgments. While the word \"judgment\" is somewhat strong in English, the point here is just that the statement you are making is somehow rooted in your own subjective perspective—what you've just said may _not_ be true from someone else's perspective.\n\nNotice how the following statements are all things that you could disagree with:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"あの 桜[さくら]\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong>とても きれい だ{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  That sakura tree is very pretty. \u003Cbr>\n  → \"Pretty\" is a subjective judgment; you're giving your opinion.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"納豆[なっとう] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 苦手[にがて] だ{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  I'm not a fan of natto. \u003Cbr>\n  → As hard as it may be to believe, there are people out there who like natto.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"ここ の 電車[でんしゃ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> いつも 遅[おく]れる{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  This train is always late. \u003Cbr>\n  → Naturally, the train isn't _always_ late. Hyperbolism is subjective! Another person may find that the bus is generally on time.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"子[こ]ども \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 泣[な]く もの だ{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  Children cry _(it's natural that children cry\u002Fchildren are supposed to cry)_. \u003Cbr>\n  → From this person's perspective, it isn't surprising that a child should cry: they're saying that it is in a child's nature to cry. Anyway, this is a statement you can disagree with.\n\n### Use は (wa) to introduce contrast into a statement\n\nLook at this sentence for a second, and think about how you'd interpret it:\n\n- I didn't tell _him_.\n\nThis sentence is really saying two things:\n\n1. I didn't tell that man\n2. I did\u002Fmay have told someone else\n\nIn linguistics, this is called contrast—and, in Japanese, you use は (wa) to imbue a sentence with this kind of contrast.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"彼[かれ] に \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 言[い,いう]わなかった。\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  I didn't tell _him_. \u003Cbr>\n\nThe reason for this contrast becomes a bit more clear when we see the other half of this kind of sentence:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"私[わたし] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 猫[ねこ] が 好[す]き だ が{、}弟[おとうと] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 好[す]き じゃ[,じゃ]ない{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  I like cats, but my younger brother doesn't. \u003Cbr>\n\nSo, as you can see here, we've first established ourselves as the topic and made a comment that applies to ourselves, then quickly changed the topic to something else and made the inverse of the same comment.\n\nHere's two more examples, just for good measure:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"ひらがな \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 書[か,かける]けます が{、}漢字[かんじ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 書[か,かける]けません{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  I can write hiragana, but not kanji. \u003Cbr>\n  → You can't see it, but the subject is the same in each clause—it's the same person doing the writing—only the object has changed.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"コーヒー \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 嫌[きら]い だ{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n\n  (I) don't like _coffee_. \u003Cbr>\n  → Just like in that first sentence above, the nuance here isn't _just_ that you don't like coffee. It's more that while you don't like coffee, there's something else available (such as tea or milk or soda) that you _do_ like.\n\n### Use は (wa) to note a characteristic of something\n\nWhen you are saying that one thing is a characteristic, attribute, or part of another thing, use は (wa) to connect the owner and attribute. The definition of \"owner\" and \"attribute\" is quite loose, but what we mean here is in situations like \"all thumbs are fingers, but not all fingers are thumbs\"—where A=B is true, but B=A is not necessarily true.\n\nFor example:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"サミ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> アメリカ人[あめりかじん] だ{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  Sami is American. \u003Cbr>\n  → Importantly, this is a one-way relationship. It's not true that, if there is an American, then they are inevitably Sami. There are more Americans than just Sami.\n\nThe same thing goes for talking about qualities of people:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"中島[なかしま] 美[み] 嘉[か] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 格好[かっこう]いい {。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  Mika Nakashima is cool. \u003Cbr>\n  → While [Mika Nakashima is cool](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.youtube.com\u002Fwatch?v=AabAbM_Lmuo), she does not have a monopoly on cool-ness. There are other cool people.\n\nAnd here's an example of using は (wa) to explain a category:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"コーギー \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 犬[いぬ] です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  A corgi is a (type of) dog. \u003Cbr>\n  → This one might be a bit less intuitive. While it's always true that a corgi is a dog, it isn't always true that if you see a dog it will be a corgi.\n\n### Use は (wa) to introduce something that applies to the entire sentence\n\nLike most things in life, sentences can come in simpler or more complex forms. When sentences get complex enough to contain multiple parts, we describe them as having _clauses_: the \"main\" clause is the part of the sentence that could be cut off and turned into an independent sentence, while the the \"subordinate\" clause is the part of the sentence that would no longer be a complete sentence if cut off and left by itself.\n\nAnyway—attach は (wa) to the thing in the beginning of the sentence that is related to the sentence's verb.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"昨日[きのう] 彼女[かのじょ] が 作[つく,つくる]った ケーキ\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong>{、}とても おいしかった{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  The cake that the woman made yesterday was very delicious. \u003Cbr>\n  → The cake is the thing that was very delicious, so it gets marked with は (wa). The sentence would still make sense if you entirely deleted \"彼女が作った\" .\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"彼[かれ] が うち に 来[き,くる]た とき{、}私[わたし] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 出[で,でかける]かけて い[,いる]た{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  When he came to our place, I had already gone out. \u003Cbr>\n  → The point of the sentence is that the speaker had already left their house. \"When he came to our place\" provides more detailed information, but you could delete it and the sentence would still make sense.\n\n### Use は (wa) to make negative (\"not\u002Fdon't \\_\\_\\_\") statements\n\nWhile there are a number of exceptions to this, especially in more complex sentences, you'll generally use は (wa) with negative sentences. _(Note: \"negative\" not as in \"bad\", but as in \"is not\" or \"does not\".)_\n\nA few examples:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"私[わたし] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 知[し,しる]りません{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  I don't know.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"コーヒー \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 飲[の,のむ]みません{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  I don't drink coffee.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"残念[ざんねん] ながら{、}お茶[おちゃ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>は\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> あり[,ある]ません{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  Unfortunately, there is no tea.\n\n## When to use が (ga) in a sentence\n\nHere are six situations where the decision to use が (ga) over は (wa) in a sentence is meaningful. These six points are all counterpoints to the above six points introduced for は (wa), so you may wish to review them in tandem.\n\nAgain, note that the point of this article is _specifically_ to contrast the usage of が (ga) and は (wa). For a thorough list of grammatical structures where が (ga) is used, refer to the が (ga) section of our [master post on Japanese particles](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particles-guide#the-case-particles-%E3%81%8C-%E3%81%AE-%E3%82%92-%E3%81%AB-%E3%81%B8-%E3%81%A8-%E3%81%A7-%E3%81%8B%E3%82%89-and-%E3%82%88%E3%82%8A).\n\n### Use が (ga) to introduce new information into a conversation\n\nIn English, we use \"a\" to introduce new information into a conversation. In exactly the same way, Japanese uses が (ga) for this purpose.\n\nConsider the same two example sentences from the は (wa) section above:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"昔々[むかしむかし]{、}おじいさん と おばあさん\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong>おっ[,おる]た{。}おじいさん は 山[やま] へ 芝[しば] 刈[が]り に{、}おばあさん は 川[かわ] へ 洗濯[せんたく] に 行[ゆ,ゆく]った{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  Once upon a time, there lived an old man and an old woman. The old man went to the mountains to cut firewood, and the old woman went to the river to do the laundry.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"家[いえ] に 帰[かえ,かえる]ったら クマ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> い[,いる]た{。}あの クマ は {（}私[わたし] たち の{）}晩御飯[ばんごはん] を 食[た,たべる]べて い[,いる]た{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  When I returned home, there was a bear. The bear was eating my lunch.\n\nAnd notice how が (ga) is used the first time the old couple and the bear are mentioned, but how は (wa) is used when they are mentioned for a second time.\n\nSimilarly, we can invert our example sentence about the teacher:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"サミ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> 先生[せんせい] です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  Sami is a teacher. \u003Cbr>\n  → The decision to use が (ga) here indicates that you think the listener doesn't know who the teaacher is—in other words, you're providing information that is new to them.\n\nNow, kind of a fun one—using what we've said so far, take a stab at this sentence:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"空[そら] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 青[あお,あおい]い{！}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  The sky is _blue_! \u003Cbr>\n  → You've used が (ga) with something that is, presumably, common sense. This communicates your surprise: it's contrary to what you'd expected. Perhaps it's been rainy and the sky has been grey for several days—or perhaps you're a dwarf and have spent your entire life underground and are seeing the sky for the first time.\n\n### Use が (ga) when making observations\n\nWhereas the sentences in the above section somehow involved the speaker's personal opinion, replacing the は (wa) with が (ga) makes them feel more objective: as if you're simply recording events as they unfold.\n\n- Observation: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"雪[ゆき]\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu>降[ふ]って いる{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  Snow is falling. \u003Cbr>\n  → This is happening, and that fact doesn't change whether you notice, care, or exist.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"納豆[なっとう] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> お 椀[わん] に ある{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  The natto is in a bowl. \u003Cbr>\n  → This is a factual observation, and you're not passing any sort of judgment on the situation (such as that it would be better for the natto to be in the garbage, instead).\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"電車[でんしゃ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 来[き,くる]た{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  The train is here. \u003Cbr>\n  → Again, this is simply an observation: you're standing there on the platform, killing time on your phone, then you hear a horn and look up. The train is in front of you.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"子[こ]ども \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 泣[な,なく]いて いる{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  The child is crying. \u003Cbr>\n  → You're not commenting on whether it's good or bad that the child is crying, or arguing that it is or isn't in children's nature to cry—you're simply stating an observation.\n\n### Use が (ga) to point a finger \u002F pick something out of a group \u002F make an exclusive statement\n\nI wrote a few sentences trying to separate \"exclusive が (ga)\" from \"contrastive は (wa)\", but I kept getting tripped up on a certain point: isn't singling one thing out the same as separating it from literally everything else, which is a form of contrast?\n\nSo, instead of reading those failed explanations, please observe these two memes I found on [a subreddit I won't name on this family-friendly website](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.reddit.com\u002Fr\u002FFUCKYOUINPARTICULAR\u002F):\n\n\u003Cimg src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-particle-wa-vs-ga-lightning.jpeg\" width=\"1280\" height=\"672\" alt=\"A photo of lightning bending to strike a specific apartment, demonstrating the exclusive nature of the Japanese particle ga\" \u002F>\n\nOf all the places lightning could have struck, the forces that be picked that one specific guy's couch.\n\nSimilarly, the below sentiment is directed at one single person in particular:\n\n\u003Cimg src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-particle-wa-vs-ga-tomcruise.jpeg\" width=\"828\" height=\"1023\" alt=\"A photo demonstrating a woman's joy to be divorced from Tom Cruise, demonstrating the exclusive nature of the Japanese particle ga\" \u002F>\n\nThe point in the first meme isn't the other rooms that lightning _could_ have stricken, but the one very specific room it _did_ strike. Similarly, we don't care about all the men Nicole Kidman is happy to not have in her life—every lumen of joy beaming from her rosy cheeks in this photograph is directed very, very specifically at Tom Cruise.\n\nSo anyway, when you want to raise one thing on a podium to the exclusion of everything else—to reach into a box of a hundred plushies and say you want _this_ one in particular—you use が (ga) to do that.\n\nObserve:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"コーヒー \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 嫌[きら]い だ{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  (I) don't like _coffee_. \u003Cbr>\n  → This is the same sentence from up above in the contrastive は (wa) section, but the は (wa) has been swapped out with が (ga). Here, the focus isn't directed to the things you'd _rather_ be drinking. Instead, it's kind of like you just went out on a date with your partner, and they know very well that you don't like coffee, but they still ordered you a coffee. You're emphasizing that you hate, very specifically, _coffee_.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"りんご \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 青森[あおもり] の 特産品[とくさんひん] だ{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  Apples are Aomori's specialty. \u003Cbr>\n  → By using が (ga) here, you're shining a spotlight on apples. Aomori actually produces many things, but for now, we don't care about any of that. We're reducing the world to just two things: Aomori and apples.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"これ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 私[わたし] の 鉛筆[えんぴつ] だ{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  _This_ is my pencil. \u003Cbr>\n  → Imagine that a supernatural force has shaken up your entire university lecture hall. Nobody is hurt, but all 100 of y'all's pencils have mysteriously been transported from your desk to a box in the middle of the room. You walk up to the box, look for a second, and then see your pencil—you hold it up, triumphantly, and announce: _this_ is your pencil.\n\nNow that we've established this point, let's look at the same sentence from up above in the \"use が (ga) for new information\" section:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"サミ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 先生[せんせい] です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  Sami is a teacher. \u003Cbr>\n  → When you use が here, the nuance is similarly that there are many people that _could_ be the teacher, but _Sami_ specifically is the teacher. Imagine you're in a room with several people, and this sentence is the response to \"who\u002Fwhich one is the teacher?\"\n\n### Use が (ga)... or は (wa)... to equate two things\n\nWhereas は (wa) is used for one-way relationships (situations where A=B, but B=\u002F=A), が (ga) is used when you can equate things in a two-way fashion (A=B and B=A.)\n\nTo give a couple classic examples of this, consider:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"あの 人[ひと] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> サミ だ{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  That person is Sami. \u003Cbr>\n  → Here, it's equally valid to say _that person is Sami_ and _Sami is that person_. It doesn't matter which way you organize the sentence because thing A and thing B are the same. To indicate this two-way equality, we use が.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"  東京[とうきょう] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 日本[にほん] の 首都[しゅと] です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  Tokyo is the the capital of Japan. \u003Cbr>\n  → Again, it would also be accurate to say _the capital of Japan is Tokyo_. Since we can swap the order of the parts of the statement without making it false, we connect them with が (ga).\n\n_(Note: You can also optionally use は (wa) for two-way relationships, but I've chosen to attribute it to が (ga), just to keep the sections separate.)_\n\n### Use が (ga) to introduce something that modifies something within a sentence, but not the entire sentence\n\nThis section is tied very closely to は (wa) section above, in which we said は (wa) attaches to the part of a complex sentence that could form a complete sentence in and of itself.\n\nConversely, attach が (ga) to the thing that is only related to part of a sentence—often something that is adding description to a noun.\n\nAs we can see in those same two sentences from above:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"昨日[きのう] 彼女[かのじょ]\u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong>作[つく,つくる]った ケーキは{、}とても おいしかった{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  The cake that the woman made yesterday was very delicious. \u003Cbr>\n  → \"That the woman made\" serves no purpose except to add more information about the word \"cake\", so we attach が (ga) to it. You could also attach の (no) to it, instead, if you prefer.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"彼[かれ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fu>\u003C\u002Fstrong> うち に 来[き,くる]た とき{、}私[わたし] は 出[で,でかける]かけて い[,いる]た{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\n  When he came to our place, I had already gone out. \u003Cbr>\n  → 彼がうちに来た is not a standalone phrase but rather something that adds more specificity to とき. Since \"when he came to our place\" isn't a complete sentence, が gets attached to 彼.\n\n### Use が (ga) with question words\n\nIf you use a question word in a sentence, and it doesn't come before だ・です, attach が (ga) to the question word.\n\nFor example:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"誰[だれ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 正[ただ,ただしい]しくて{、}誰[だれ] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 間違[まちが,まちがう]って いる の か{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  Who is right, and who is wrong?\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"いったい 何[なに] \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> 起[お,おこる]こって いる の だろ[,だろ]う か{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  What in the world is going on?. \u003Cbr>\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"それ の どこ \u003Cstrong>\u003Cu>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fu> いけ[,いける]ない の でしょ[,でしょ]う か{？}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Cbr>\n  What's wrong with that? \u003Cbr> _(literally, \"the where of that cannot go?\")_\n\n## Already read like six articles but still don't get the difference between は (wa) が (ga)?\n\nThat's OK.\n\nTo be totally honest, I started studying Japanese in 2014 and have passed [the JLPT N1, the highest-level proficiency level test of Japanese](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjlpt-n1-overview), but I couldn't have written this article off the top of my head. Knowing stuff _about_ a language isn't the same as _understanding_ the language. If that seems weird—did you know that [English adjectives have a fixed order they're required to go in](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.ym-language-services.com\u002Fen\u002Fthe-order-of-adjectives-in-english\u002F)?\n\n- ✅ Migachu is a \u003Cstrong>cute purple\u003C\u002Fstrong> mascot.\n- ❌ Migachu is a \u003Cstrong>purple cute\u003C\u002Fstrong> mascot.\n\nWeird, huh? It blew my mind when I learned that.\n\nBasically, what I want to say is that you don't _need_ to memorize all of this information.\n\nThe real way to make progress in Japanese is simply by spending time interacting with it—reading books, watching anime, having conversations, and stuff like that. This should make intuitive sense: it's how you learned your native language, and you speak that language pretty well!\n\nThe reason that spending time with Japanese (which we call getting \"input\") is so important is that, when you do so, you will inevitably run into tons of sentences that include は (wa) and が (ga)—such as this one below:\n\n\u003Cimg src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-japanese-particles-wa-vs-ga-immerse.jpeg\" width=\"1248\" height=\"1058\" alt=\"A screenshot from Migaku's Japanese Academy course, showing one of our lessons that introduces the particle が (ga).\"\u002F>\n\nAnd, over time, as you see more and more sentences that include は (wa) and が (ga), it'll just kind of sink in. You'll develop an intuitive feel for how these particles work and what sort of nuance they lend to a sentence.\n\nIf this is the first time you're hearing about this approach to learning languages, we've actually got [an entire guide to learning Japanese with Netflix](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Flearn-japanese-with-netflix).\n\nGo check that out and try Migaku—it's totally free for 10 days, and you don't need to give us your your credit card information or anything like that 💪\n\n\u003Cprose-button href=\"\u002Flearn-japanese\" text=\"Try Migaku for free\">\u003C\u002Fprose-button>\n\nOf course, if you're still a beginner, go ahead and study は (wa) and が (ga) formally! Just know that, eventually, to consolidate that knowledge, at some point you're going to want to start spending time doing things in Japanese. (Migaku actually has a really solid Japanese course, by the way. Alternatively, we've also compiled a list of [the best Japanese textbooks for beginners](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fbest-japanese-textbooks).)\n\n\u003Cimg src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-japanese-particles-ga-vs-wa-lesson.jpeg\" width=\"1018\" height=\"712\" alt=\"A screenshot from Migaku's Japanese Academy course, showing one of our lessons that introduces the particle が (ga).\"\u002F>\n\n## Conclusion\n\nは (wa) and が (ga) can get pretty complex, but pretty much all of their usages boil down to the same essential two points:\n\n- は (wa) marks what you're talking about, and can potentially affect several consecutive sentences\n- が (ga) marks the thing\u002Fperson doing a sentence's verb, and affects only the specific sentence it appears in\n\nSo long as you get that, it's OK. You'll gradually work out the details, over time, as you spend more time interacting with Japanese media.\n\n\u003CCenteredText>\nがんばってね！\u003Cbr>\nGood luck!\n\u003C\u002FCenteredText>\n",{"title":5,"description":2052},"article\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particle-wa-vs-ga","tWrXMIUFeC-QbXVgS6sNFrDdGxHQLT4LDsnX0yvbo1k","January 10, 2025",{"approximate_member_count":2074},20367,null,[2077],{"id":4,"title":5,"body":2078,"description":2052,"extension":2053,"meta":3508,"navigation":2066,"path":2067,"rawbody":2068,"seo":3511,"stem":2070,"__hash__":2071,"timestampUnix":2055,"slug":2056,"h1":2057,"image":3509,"tags":3510},{"type":7,"value":2079,"toc":3479},[2080,2082,2087,2097,2099,2101,2103,2105,2117,2119,2121,2189,2191,2197,2199,2205,2207,2214,2216,2304,2306,2308,2322,2324,2326,2340,2342,2344,2394,2396,2400,2402,2409,2411,2461,2463,2467,2471,2473,2475,2479,2481,2495,2497,2501,2505,2511,2513,2515,2520,2522,2524,2539,2543,2557,2561,2563,2565,2575,2579,2597,2601,2603,2607,2609,2615,2625,2627,2641,2643,2653,2655,2657,2659,2711,2717,2719,2721,2723,2734,2736,2738,2740,2746,2748,2750,2760,2764,2766,2776,2778,2792,2794,2808,2810,2814,2816,2870,2872,2874,2880,2882,2888,2890,2904,2906,2918,2920,2922,2952,2954,2956,2958,2972,2974,2991,2993,3007,3009,3013,3015,3041,3043,3047,3049,3075,3077,3079,3085,3087,3089,3091,3109,3111,3113,3127,3129,3145,3147,3149,3199,3201,3203,3208,3210,3212,3214,3216,3222,3226,3228,3276,3278,3296,3298,3300,3302,3334,3338,3340,3342,3344,3346,3372,3374,3376,3378,3410,3412,3414,3425,3435,3437,3441,3443,3445,3447,3449,3453,3455,3457,3461,3463,3465,3467,3473,3475],[10,2081,12],{},[10,2083,15,2084,23],{},[17,2085,22],{"href":19,"rel":2086},[21],[25,2088,2089,2091],{},[10,2090,29],{},[31,2092,2093,2095],{},[34,2094,36],{},[34,2096,39],{},[10,2098,42],{},[10,2100,45],{},[47,2102],{},[50,2104],{},[25,2106,2107,2109,2111],{},[55,2108,58],{"bold":57,"underline":57},[60,2110],{},[10,2112,64,2113,69,2115,74],{},[17,2114,68],{"href":67},[17,2116,73],{"href":72},[76,2118,79],{"id":78},[10,2120,82],{},[84,2122,2123,2125,2135,2137,2145,2147,2177,2179,2183],{"heading":86},[10,2124,89],{},[31,2126,2127,2131],{},[34,2128,2129,98],{},[95,2130,97],{},[34,2132,2133,104],{},[95,2134,103],{},[10,2136,107],{},[31,2138,2139,2143],{},[34,2140,112,2141,117],{},[114,2142,116],{},[34,2144,120],{},[10,2146,123],{},[31,2148,2149,2163],{},[34,2150,2151,132,2153],{},[17,2152,131],{"href":130},[31,2154,2155],{},[34,2156,2157,2159,144,2161,148],{},[138,2158],{"lang":140,"syntax":141},[60,2160],{},[95,2162,147],{},[34,2164,2165,155,2167],{},[17,2166,154],{"href":153},[31,2168,2169],{},[34,2170,2171,2173,165,2175,148],{},[138,2172],{"lang":140,"syntax":162},[60,2174],{},[95,2176,168],{},[10,2178,171],{},[25,2180,2181],{},[10,2182,176],{},[10,2184,2185],{},[114,2186,181,2187,186],{},[17,2188,185],{"href":184},[76,2190,190],{"id":189},[10,2192,193,2193,197,2195,201],{},[17,2194,196],{"href":184},[114,2196,200],{},[10,2198,204],{},[10,2200,207,2201,211,2203,215],{},[114,2202,210],{},[114,2204,214],{},[217,2206,220],{"id":219},[10,2208,223,2209,231],{},[17,2210,2212],{"href":226,"rel":2211},[21],[138,2213],{"lang":140,"syntax":230},[10,2215,234],{},[236,2217,2218,2228],{},[239,2219,2220],{},[242,2221,2222,2224,2226],{},[245,2223,247],{},[245,2225,250],{},[245,2227,253],{},[255,2229,2230,2247,2267,2287],{},[242,2231,2232,2237,2239],{},[260,2233,2234],{},[17,2235,266],{"href":264,"rel":2236},[21],[260,2238,269],{},[260,2240,272,2241,275,2243,186],{},[60,2242],{},[114,2244,2245,281],{},[95,2246,280],{},[242,2248,2249,2254,2259],{},[260,2250,2251],{},[17,2252,290],{"href":288,"rel":2253},[21],[260,2255,293,2256],{},[17,2257,298],{"href":296,"rel":2258},[21],[260,2260,301,2261,275,2263,186],{},[60,2262],{},[114,2264,306,2265,310],{},[95,2266,309],{},[242,2268,2269,2274,2279],{},[260,2270,2271],{},[17,2272,319],{"href":317,"rel":2273},[21],[260,2275,293,2276],{},[17,2277,325],{"href":296,"rel":2278},[21],[260,2280,328,2281,275,2283,186],{},[60,2282],{},[114,2284,333,2285,337],{},[95,2286,336],{},[242,2288,2289,2294,2296],{},[260,2290,2291],{},[17,2292,346],{"href":344,"rel":2293},[21],[260,2295,349],{},[260,2297,352,2298,275,2300,186],{},[60,2299],{},[114,2301,357,2302,74],{},[95,2303,360],{},[10,2305,363],{},[10,2307,366],{},[31,2309,2310],{},[34,2311,371,2312],{},[31,2313,2314,2316,2318,2320],{},[34,2315,376],{},[34,2317,379],{},[34,2319,382],{},[34,2321,385],{},[10,2323,388],{},[10,2325,391],{},[25,2327,2328,2330],{},[10,2329,396],{},[31,2331,2332,2336],{},[34,2333,401,2334,405],{},[114,2335,404],{},[34,2337,401,2338,405],{},[114,2339,410],{},[412,2341,415],{"id":414},[10,2343,418],{},[31,2345,2346,2358,2370,2382],{},[34,2347,2348,2350,428,2352],{},[138,2349],{"lang":140,"syntax":425},[60,2351],{},[31,2353,2354,2356],{},[34,2355,433],{},[34,2357,436],{},[34,2359,2360,2362,444,2364],{},[138,2361],{"lang":140,"syntax":441},[60,2363],{},[31,2365,2366,2368],{},[34,2367,449],{},[34,2369,452],{},[34,2371,2372,2374,460,2376],{},[138,2373],{"lang":140,"syntax":457},[60,2375],{},[31,2377,2378,2380],{},[34,2379,465],{},[34,2381,468],{},[34,2383,2384,2386,476,2388],{},[138,2385],{"lang":140,"syntax":473},[60,2387],{},[31,2389,2390,2392],{},[34,2391,481],{},[34,2393,484],{},[10,2395,487],{},[25,2397,2398],{},[10,2399,492],{},[217,2401,496],{"id":495},[10,2403,499,2404,507],{},[17,24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