[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"blog-article-local-japanese-particles-guide":3,"$fHZsWYl_LcdVZ5GxKwtR-ZqvCZbbUdo2_Fi6R_GQKiQM":2580,"blog-article-cms-japanese-particles-guide":2582,"article-hreflang-japanese-particles-guide":2583,"blog-article-related-japanese-particles-guide":4379},{"id":4,"title":5,"body":6,"description":2557,"extension":2558,"meta":2559,"navigation":2573,"path":2574,"rawbody":2575,"seo":2576,"stem":2577,"__hash__":2578,"timestampUnix":2560,"slug":2561,"h1":2562,"image":2563,"tags":2568,"timestamp":2579,"locale":-1},"content\u002Farticle\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particles.md","The Complete Beginner’s Guide to Japanese Particles",{"type":7,"value":8,"toc":2522},"minimark",[9,19,34,42,60,63,66,69,74,79,94,113,116,149,152,156,165,168,196,207,211,214,226,292,295,298,300,304,307,315,318,331,334,337,351,354,357,359,363,370,383,386,401,408,411,414,416,420,442,462,465,469,472,518,527,758,761,765,768,792,795,821,824,855,859,868,887,890,893,938,941,945,948,976,979,1003,1011,1040,1044,1047,1050,1085,1089,1092,1140,1143,1187,1190,1194,1197,1221,1224,1247,1250,1294,1298,1301,1304,1370,1373,1397,1405,1446,1448,1452,1465,1473,1491,1494,1498,1505,1512,1522,1528,1531,1535,1538,1569,1580,1583,1600,1603,1621,1628,1632,1641,1651,1654,1659,1662,1665,1707,1710,1712,1716,1719,1722,1729,1732,1740,1747,1751,1753,1757,1760,1764,1767,1779,1782,1868,1875,1879,1882,1885,1893,1896,1904,1906,1910,1913,1922,1935,1939,1942,1945,1967,1970,1985,1988,1994,1997,2019,2022,2025,2029,2032,2047,2061,2074,2078,2081,2121,2125,2139,2142,2167,2170,2174,2177,2226,2231,2235,2238,2241,2244,2265,2268,2311,2314,2357,2360,2372,2374,2378,2381,2471,2498,2500,2504,2507,2510,2513],[10,11,12,13,18],"p",{},"Particles are tiny little grammatical tags that clarify the relationships between words in a sentence. They aren't concrete words like \"bear\" or \"pizza\" and cannot stand on their own, but they're important. You'll see them in virtually every Japanese sentence, so if you want to ",[14,15,17],"a",{"href":16},"\u002Flearn-japanese","learn Japanese",", you need to get your head around Japanese particles.",[10,20,21,22,27,28,33],{},"Looking at the Japanese word for particle, ",[23,24],"typo",{"lang":25,"syntax":26},"ja","助詞[じょし]"," ",[29,30],"custom-audio",{"src":31,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_助詞.mp3","3",", we see 助 (\"help\" or \"assist\") and 詞 (\"part of speech\"). This is fitting. In Japanese, particles attach to other words in order to add context to a sentence by indicating what function a word (or even phrase) is playing within that sentence. Literally speaking, particles are parts of speech that help us connect words together.",[10,35,36,37,41],{},"If we translated the sentence ",[38,39,40],"em",{},"\"that bear is eating my pizza!\""," into Japanese, we'd end up using two particles:",[43,44,45,53],"ul",{},[46,47,48,49,52],"li",{},"The particle が ",[29,50],{"src":51,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_が.mp3"," would attach to \"bear\" to show that it's the thing which is doing the eating",[46,54,55,56,59],{},"The particle を ",[29,57],{"src":58,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_を.mp3"," would attach to \"pizza\" to show that it's the thing being eaten",[10,61,62],{},"In this post we'll talk about:",[64,65],"toc",{},[67,68],"hr",{},[70,71,73],"h2",{"id":72},"japanese-sentences-vs-english-sentences","Japanese sentences vs English sentences",[75,76,78],"h3",{"id":77},"differences-due-to-sentence-structure","Differences due to sentence structure",[10,80,81,82,86,87,93],{},"In the post on ",[14,83,85],{"href":84},"\u002Fblog\u002Flanguage-fun\u002Fthe-most-difficult-language","the world's hardest languages",", we talked about how languages can be analyzed in several ways. Linguists classify languages according to ",[14,88,92],{"href":89,"rel":90},"https:\u002F\u002Fwals.info\u002Ffeature",[91],"nofollow","nearly 200 features",", and one of those features has to do with how information within a sentence is organized.",[43,95,96,105],{},[46,97,98,99,104],{},"English is a ",[14,100,103],{"href":101,"rel":102},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FSubject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object_word_order",[91],"subject-verb-object (SVO)"," language",[46,106,107,108,104],{},"Japanese is a ",[14,109,112],{"href":110,"rel":111},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FSubject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb_word_order",[91],"subject-object-verb (SOV)",[10,114,115],{},"This has broad implications for how sentences get organized in Japanese and English, but, for now, let's just look at a simple sentence:",[43,117,118,136],{},[46,119,120,121],{},"English says ",[38,122,123,127,128,131,132,135],{},[124,125,126],"strong",{},"A bear"," (subject) ",[124,129,130],{},"is eating"," (verb) ",[124,133,134],{},"a pizza"," (object)",[46,137,138,139],{},"Japanese says ",[38,140,141,127,143,145,146,148],{},[124,142,126],{},[124,144,134],{}," (object) ",[124,147,130],{}," (verb)",[10,150,151],{},"Notice that the verb goes at the very end of a Japanese sentence, not in the middle.",[75,153,155],{"id":154},"differences-due-to-culture","Differences due to culture",[10,157,158,159,164],{},"Additionally, whereas most English countries are ",[14,160,163],{"href":161,"rel":162},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FHigh-context_and_low-context_cultures",[91],"low-context cultures",", Japan is a high-context culture (see the same link). This affects sentence structure in that English speakers tend to make information explicit, even when it is redundant, but Japanese speakers omit redundant information where possible.",[10,166,167],{},"So if we take a question like \"Did you eat the pizza?\", we might get responses like this:",[43,169,170,173,176,186],{},[46,171,172],{},"EN 1: Yes, I ate it.",[46,174,175],{},"EN 2: No, the bear ate it.",[46,177,178,179,27,182,185],{},"JA 1: ",[23,180],{"lang":25,"syntax":181},"うん{、}食[た,たべる]べた{。}",[29,183,27],{"src":184,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_うん、食べた。.mp3"," (\"Yes, ate.\")",[46,187,188,189,27,192,195],{},"JA 2: ",[23,190],{"lang":25,"syntax":191},"ううん{、}クマ が 食[た,たべる]べた{。}",[29,193,27],{"src":194,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_ううん、クマが食べた。.mp3"," (\"No, bear ate.\")",[10,197,198,199,202,203,206],{},"In English, the responses explicitly re-affirm who did what. In Japanese, however, since the initial question correctly states who did the eating (you) and what was eaten (the pizza), the \"JA 1\" response doesn't repeat that information. In the \"JA 2\" response, the speaker makes use of the が particle, as it's now necessary to clarify that the pizza was eaten by ",[38,200,201],{},"the bear",", not by ",[38,204,205],{},"me",".",[75,208,210],{"id":209},"the-key-point","The key point",[10,212,213],{},"With this difference in mind, we end up with a somewhat profound insight into how Japanese sentences differ from English ones:",[215,216,217],"blockquote",{},[10,218,219,220,223,225],{},"English sentences boil down to subjects that do things. ",[221,222],"br",{},[221,224],{}," Japanese sentences boil down to a single verb† and, optionally, the context surrounding it.",[227,228,230,246,254,270,273,283,290],"accordion",{"heading":229},"† A pedantic note",[10,231,232,233,241,242,245],{},"To be really technical, Japanese sentences consist of ",[14,234,237,238],{"href":235,"rel":236},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FPredicate_(grammar)",[91],"a ",[38,239,240],{},"predicate"," and any necessary context surrounding it. A predicate is the part of a sentence (technically called a ",[38,243,244],{},"clause",") which says something about the subject. It may be a verb (John runs), an adjective (John is tall), or even a noun (John is a man).",[10,247,248,253],{},[14,249,252],{"href":250,"rel":251},"https:\u002F\u002Fchasoblogjapan.com\u002Fhatoga\u002F",[91],"The simplest Japanese explanation"," of this I've found says:",[43,255,256,267],{},[46,257,258,259,262,264],{},"JA: ",[23,260],{"lang":25,"syntax":261},"日本語[にほんご] は{【}述語[じゅつご]{】}を 中心[ちゅうしん] に{、}複数[ふくすう] の 成分[せいぶん] から 構成[こうせい] さ[,する]れます{。}",[221,263],{},[23,265],{"lang":25,"syntax":266},"要[よう]するに{、「}必要[ひつよう] な 言葉[ことば]{＋}述語[じゅつご]{」}が 日本語[にほんご] の 基本[きほん] な[,な]ん です{。}",[46,268,269],{},"EN: Focusing around the predicate, Japanese (sentences) consist of multiple parts. In essence, Japanese sentences consist of \"a predicate\" and \"(other) necessary words\".",[10,271,272],{},"And here's how my Japanese dictionary defines 述語 (predicate):",[43,274,275,280],{},[46,276,258,277],{},[23,278],{"lang":25,"syntax":279},"文[ぶん] の 成分[せいぶん] の 一[いち]{。}文中[ぶんちゅう] で{「}何[なに] が どう する{」「}何[なに] が どんな だ{」「}何[なに] が 何[なん]だ{」}における{「}どう する{」「}どんな だ{」「}なん だ{」}に 当[あ]たる 語[ご] または 文節[ぶんせつ] を いう{。「}花[はな] が 散[ち]る{」「}頬[ほお] が 赤[あか]い{」「}あれ が 駅[えき] だ{」}における{「}散[ち]る{」「}赤[あか]い{」「}駅[えき] だ{」}の 類[るい]{。}",[46,281,282],{},"EN: (The predicate) is one of the components of a sentence. In a sentence, it refers to the (words\u002Fphrase\u002Fclause) that corresponds to \"{thing}\" in \"X does {thing},\" \"is like {descriptor}\" in \"Y is like {descriptor},\" or \"is {thing}\" in \"Z is {thing}.\" Examples include \"fall\" in \"the flowers fall,\" \"red\" in \"the cheeks are red,\" and \"is the station\" in \"that is the station.\"",[10,284,285,286,289],{},"In casual speech and some fixed phrases, you may also see sentences where the verb has been omitted. Perhaps the most common example is それはちょっと・・・",[29,287,27],{"src":288,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-それはちょっとぉぉ・・・.mp3",", which is used to politely refrain from answering a question or carrying out a request.",[67,291],{},[10,293,294],{},"If it's necessary for a sentence to consist of more than just a verb, you (a) add in any necessary context words and (b) attach a particle that clarifies how those words relate to the sentence's main verb.",[10,296,297],{},"And now you might ask:",[67,299],{},[70,301,303],{"id":302},"why-do-japanese-sentences-need-particles-anyway","Why do Japanese sentences need particles, anyway?",[10,305,306],{},"When you saw that sentence about the pizza-eating bear, something like this might have gone through your head:",[215,308,309],{},[10,310,311,312,314],{},"If English can say ",[38,313,40],{}," without using particles, why do they suddenly become necessary when we say that sentence in Japanese?",[10,316,317],{},"And that's an excellent question to be asking. The answer is a little abstract, so I'll make a metaphor.",[10,319,320,321,326,327,330],{},"Bear with me for a moment and imagine that you want to go to ",[14,322,325],{"href":323,"rel":324},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Fsearch?num=10&sca_esv=5cf43fb2a73d6eec&sxsrf=ADLYWIJJz9rF6nAhMdzyRat5svKC2ytLKg:1728954225320&q=ueno+zoo&udm=2&fbs=AEQNm0BqbPbAzSj6PhNr7nv9Ltx-oFh8tVsgXi1MyFbswNtTUOS5b68chsyOj2QEdx4EPnNHj-rfVa2Eb1VCscGX2ZUj5r8ZOZRpZPWpmGRpRWIG4vnBpwS1Khes1PynNnzkhGAwsjNymIEagZDR9C9QEbmDPkR4-PLgcE1kK1jdKjsiptWX900piQTBNnKXkMbFe2Fc99dxN9DkqHom-yRhNVZ205e_LT-7K4smq681js2gF_X4pFM&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwifiruzmI-JAxUhC3kGHU3RLxIQtKgLegQIDhAB&biw=1240&bih=880&dpr=2#vhid=buu71Lm2u8fWTM&vssid=mosaic",[91],"the Ueno Zoological Gardens"," in Tokyo. You can get to the zoo via bike or train, and your route will be impacted by the mode of transportation you choose: a train ",[38,328,329],{},"must"," follow tracks, but a bicycle probably won't ever follow train tracks. In other words, your destination is fixed, but your route is variable",[10,332,333],{},"In the same way, while every language is capable of communicating any message, how the sentence conveying that message will look depends on each particular language's structure and features. Just like a bicycle and train will take different routes to get to the same place, English and Japanese take different approaches to communicating the same message.",[10,335,336],{},"One of the key differences between English and Japanese is as follows:",[43,338,339,345],{},[46,340,341,344],{},[124,342,343],{},"English depends on word order",": English doesn't have particles that clarify the job of each word\u002Fphrase in a sentence, and this makes word order very important. If you switch the order of \"pizza\" and \"bear\" in \"the bear ate the pizza\", you end up with a bear-eating pizza. The whole system breaks down and you wind up with the stuff of nightmares.",[46,346,347,350],{},[124,348,349],{},"Japanese depends on particles",": Japanese has particles that clarify the job of each word\u002Fphrase in a sentence, and this reduces the importance of word order. If you switch the order of \"pizza\" and \"bear\" in \"the bear ate the pizza\", your sentence will still mean \"the bear ate the pizza\" because を marks the pizza as the thing that got eaten and が marks the bear as the thing that did the eating.",[10,352,353],{},"Basically, lacking a strict word order like that of English, Japanese needs to take a different approach to making it clear which parts of a sentence are doing what.",[10,355,356],{},"And that's where the particles come in.",[67,358],{},[70,360,362],{"id":361},"how-to-use-japanese-particles","How to use Japanese particles",[10,364,365,366,369],{},"Now that you know a bit about Japanese sentences and what particles are for, let's see how you actually ",[38,367,368],{},"use"," particles. Below is a simple Japanese sentence with the particles highlighted in red.",[43,371,372,380],{},[46,373,258,374,377],{},[23,375],{"lang":25,"syntax":376},"日本語[にほんご] の[;a] 助詞[じょし] を[;a] 紹介[しょうかい] する ため{、}例文[れいぶん] を[;a] 書[か,かく;]きました{。}",[29,378,27],{"src":379,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-日本語の助詞を紹介するため、例文を書きました。.mp3",[46,381,382],{},"EN: I wrote an example sentence in order to introduce Japanese particles.",[10,384,385],{},"This sentence includes three particles:",[43,387,388,395,398],{},[46,389,390,391,394],{},"In 日本語の助詞, the particle の connects 日本語 (Japanese) to 助詞 (particles); a more literal way to translate this would be \"the particles ",[124,392,393],{},"of"," Japanese\"",[46,396,397],{},"In 日本語の助詞を紹介する, the particle を shows that 日本語の助詞 (Japanese particles) is what's being introduced; notice that 日本語の助詞 is a phrase",[46,399,400],{},"In 例文を書きました, the particle を shows that 例文 (example sentence) is what's being written; notice that 例文 is a single word",[10,402,403,404,407],{},"It'll take a bit of practice to remember which particles do what, but once you've got that down, actually ",[38,405,406],{},"using"," the particles is pretty easy. You just take the particle you want and attach it directly to the end of a word or phrase.",[10,409,410],{},"If you can wrap your head around that, excellent! Pretty much all Japanese grammar has to do with either how verbs change forms or how particles attach to nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Even a lot of things that aren't particles (such as ため, \"in order to\", from our above example sentence) function in the same way that particles do: just tack them onto the end of the word or phrase they modify.",[10,412,413],{},"And now we can finally start talking about some basic Japanese particles.",[67,415],{},[70,417,419],{"id":418},"the-case-particles-が-の-を-に-へ-と-で-から-and-より","The \"case\" particles: が, の, を, に, へ, と, で, から and より",[10,421,422,423,428,429,434,435,27,438,441],{},"In linguistics, ",[14,424,427],{"href":425,"rel":426},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FGrammatical_case",[91],"grammatical case"," refers to the role a particular noun or noun phrase is playing in a sentence. Some languages show grammatical case via word order (like English) or by ",[14,430,433],{"href":431,"rel":432},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FInflection",[91],"inflecting"," a noun (like Russian). In Japanese, case particles (",[23,436],{"lang":25,"syntax":437},"各[かく] 助詞[じょし]",[29,439,27],{"src":440,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_各助詞.mp3",") are used to show the relationship a noun or noun phrase has with the verb of a sentence.",[10,443,444,445,450,451,456,457,206],{},"These particles are so integral to how Japanese sentences work that Japanese actually has ",[14,446,449],{"href":447,"rel":448},"https:\u002F\u002Fimabi.org\u002Fadjective-nominalization\u002F",[91],"grammar points that turn adjectives into nouns (~さ and ~み",", and also ",[14,452,455],{"href":453,"rel":454},"https:\u002F\u002Fimabi.org\u002Fadjective-nominalization-ii\u002F",[91],"~く",") and ",[14,458,461],{"href":459,"rel":460},"https:\u002F\u002Fimabi.org\u002Fnominalization\u002F",[91],"grammar points that turn verbs into nouns (の, こと, and もの)",[10,463,464],{},"And now we can talk about nine basic Japanese particles:",[75,466,468],{"id":467},"️-1-use-the-particle-が-to-mark-the-subject-of-a-sentence","➡️ 1. Use the particle が to mark the subject of a sentence",[10,470,471],{},"Use the particle が (ga) to mark the subject of a sentence: the thing doing an action or the thing being described. We'll get a bit more nuanced than this, but in this very general sense, this particle is pretty straightforward:",[43,473,474,497],{},[46,475,476,479,480,479,483,485,487,488,491,492,494,496],{},[23,477],{"lang":25,"syntax":478},"サミ が 記事[きじ] を 書[か,かく]きました{。}","\n \n",[29,481,479],{"src":482,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_サミが記事を書きました。.mp3",[221,484],{},[221,486],{},"\n\n\nSami \n",[124,489,490],{},"ga","\n kiji wo kakimashita\n",[221,493],{},[221,495],{},"\n\n\nSami wrote an article.\n",[46,498,499,479,502,479,505,507,509,510,512,513,515,517],{},[23,500],{"lang":25,"syntax":501},"頭[あたま] が 痛[いた]い です",[29,503,479],{"src":504,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_頭が痛いです.mp3",[221,506],{},[221,508],{},"\n\n\natama \n",[124,511,490],{},"\n itai desu.\n",[221,514],{},[221,516],{},"\n\n\n(My) head hurts.\n",[215,519,520],{},[10,521,522,523,526],{},"Notice in this second sentence that the word ",[38,524,525],{},"my"," has been omitted. We aren't telepathic, so if somebody states that a head is hurting, they're probably talking about their own head. Remember, Japanese omits information where possible!",[227,528,530,532,533,538,541,548,571,577,600,604,607,651,655,676,699,703,706,709,735,738],{"heading":529},"A few specific situations where が is also used",[221,531],{},"\nHere are a few more situations in which the subject-marking particle が is used.\n",[534,535,537],"h4",{"id":536},"when-talking-about-the-existence-of-something","When talking about the existence of something",[10,539,540],{},"When stating that something exists in English we use \"there is\" or \"there are,\" but in Japanese, you'll place が after whatever it is that exists, along with a Japanese verb that indicates existence.",[10,542,543,544,547],{},"For ",[38,545,546],{},"animate"," objects (things that are alive), use ~がいる",[43,549,550],{},[46,551,552,479,555,479,558,560,562,563,565,566,568,570],{},[23,553],{"lang":25,"syntax":554},"テーブル の 上[うえ] に 教科書[きょうかしょ] が あり[,ある]ます{。}",[29,556,479],{"src":557,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_テーブルの上に教科書があります。.mp3",[221,559],{},[221,561],{},"\n\n\ntēburu no ue ni kyōkasho \n",[124,564,490],{},"\n arimasu.\n",[221,567],{},[221,569],{},"\n\n\nThere's a book on the table.\n",[10,572,543,573,576],{},[38,574,575],{},"inanimate"," objects (things that aren't alive), use ~がある",[43,578,579],{},[46,580,581,479,584,479,587,589,591,592,594,595,597,599],{},[23,582],{"lang":25,"syntax":583},"庭[にわ] に クマ が い[,いる]ます{。}",[29,585,479],{"src":586,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_庭にクマがいます。.mp3",[221,588],{},[221,590],{},"\n\n\nniwa ni kuma \n",[124,593,490],{},"\n imasu.\n",[221,596],{},[221,598],{},"\n\n\nThere's a bear in the garden.\n",[534,601,603],{"id":602},"when-talking-about-sensesemotions","When talking about senses\u002Femotions",[10,605,606],{},"When you talk about your senses (things you hear, see, etc.) or things you feel (cold\u002Fsad, like\u002Fwant something), you'll use が in Japanese.",[43,608,609,630],{},[46,610,611,479,614,479,617,619,621,622,624,625,627,629],{},[23,612],{"lang":25,"syntax":613},"いい 匂[にお]い が し[,する]ます{！}",[29,615,479],{"src":616,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_いい匂いがします！.mp3",[221,618],{},[221,620],{},"\n\n\nii nioi\n",[124,623,490],{},"\n shimasu!.\n",[221,626],{},[221,628],{},"\n\n\n(Something) smells good!\n",[46,631,632,479,635,479,638,640,642,643,645,646,648,650],{},[23,633],{"lang":25,"syntax":634},"未来[みらい] が 怖[こわ]い です[]{。}",[29,636,479],{"src":637,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_未来が怖いです。.mp3",[221,639],{},[221,641],{},"\n\n\nmirai\n",[124,644,490],{},"\n kowai desu.\n",[221,647],{},[221,649],{},"\n\n\nThe future is scary.\n",[534,652,654],{"id":653},"when-talking-about-things-you-can-do","When talking about things you can do",[10,656,657,658,663,664,667,668,675],{},"When you put a verb into the ",[14,659,662],{"href":660,"rel":661},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FJapanese_conjugation#Potential",[91],"potential form"," to say that something \"can\" be done (",[38,665,666],{},"he reads"," vs ",[38,669,670,671,674],{},"he ",[124,672,673],{},"can"," read","), you'll mark the thing that can be done with が.",[43,677,678],{},[46,679,680,479,683,479,686,688,690,691,693,694,696,698],{},[23,681],{"lang":25,"syntax":682},"日本語[にほんご] が 話[はな,はなせる]せます{。}",[29,684,479],{"src":685,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_日本語が話せます。.mp3",[221,687],{},[221,689],{},"\n\n\nnihongo\n",[124,692,490],{},"\n hanasemasu.\n",[221,695],{},[221,697],{},"\n\n\n(I) can speak Japanese.\n",[534,700,702],{"id":701},"when-picking-something-out-of-a-group","When picking something out of a group",[10,704,705],{},"It's a bit hard to put into words, but the particle が creates a feeling that you're singling something out. Imagine that, for whatever reason, you wear glasses... and that there was a small hurricane in your school or workplace, which caused some chaos, and now there are a hundred pairs of glasses on the floor.",[10,707,708],{},"When you eventually find yours, you might hold them up in the air and (triumphantly) announce:",[43,710,711],{},[46,712,713,479,716,479,719,721,723,724,726,727,729,731,734],{},[23,714],{"lang":25,"syntax":715},"これ が 私[わたし] の メガネ です！",[29,717,479],{"src":718,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_これが私のメガネです.mp3",[221,720],{},[221,722],{},"\n\n\nKore\n",[124,725,490],{},"\n watashi no megane desu.\n",[221,728],{},[221,730],{},[38,732,733],{},"These","\n are my glasses!\n",[10,736,737],{},"If you look closely, you can kind of see this nuance in the usages listed above.",[43,739,740,746,752],{},[46,741,742,743],{},"What's in the garden? ",[38,744,745],{},"A bear.",[46,747,748,749],{},"What's scary? ",[38,750,751],{},"The future.",[46,753,754,755],{},"What language can you speak? ",[38,756,757],{},"Japanese.",[10,759,760],{},"Unfortunately, it's a bit difficult to translate が because we convey the subject of a sentence via word order in English. As you consume more Japanese content, you'll eventually develop a feel for it.",[75,762,764],{"id":763},"️-2-use-the-particle-の-to-show-possession-or-belongingassociation","➡️ 2. Use the particle の to show possession or belonging\u002Fassociation",[10,766,767],{},"The particle の functions exactly like 's (apostrophe S) in English:",[43,769,770],{},[46,771,772,479,775,479,778,780,782,783,786,787,789,791],{},[23,773],{"lang":25,"syntax":774},"{Migaku}の{Chrome}拡張機能[かくちょうきのう] は とても 便利[べんり] です{。}",[29,776,479],{"src":777,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_MigakuのChrome拡張機能はとても便利です。.mp3",[221,779],{},[221,781],{},"\n\n\nMigaku \n",[124,784,785],{},"no","\n Chrome kakuchoukinou wa totemo benri desu.\n",[221,788],{},[221,790],{},"\n\n\nMigaku's Chrome extension is very convenient.\n",[10,793,794],{},"It can also be used in the \"X の Y\" structure to mean \"The Y of X\", showing that Y somehow pertains to X.",[43,796,797],{},[46,798,799,479,802,479,805,807,809,810,812,813,815,817,818,820],{},[23,800],{"lang":25,"syntax":801},"人生[じんせい] の 意味[いみ] は 何[なに] です か",[29,803,479],{"src":804,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_人生の意味は何ですか.mp3",[221,806],{},[221,808],{},"\n\n\nJinsei \n",[124,811,785],{},"\n imi wa nan desu ka.\n",[221,814],{},[221,816],{},"\n\n\nWhat is the meaning \n",[124,819,393],{},"\n life?\n",[10,822,823],{},"You can even combine these two structures together:",[43,825,826],{},[46,827,828,479,831,479,834,836,838,839,841,842,844,845,847,849,850,852],{},[23,829],{"lang":25,"syntax":830},"秋田[あきた] 国際[こくさい] 教養[きょうよう] 大学[だいがく] の 日本語[にほんご] の 授業[じゅぎょう] は 楽[たの]しい です{。}",[29,832,479],{"src":833,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_秋田国際教養大学の日本語の授業は楽しいです。.mp3",[221,835],{},[221,837],{},"\n\n\nAkita kokusai kyouyou daigaku \n",[124,840,785],{},"\n nihongo \n",[124,843,785],{},"\n jyugyou wa tanoshii desu\n",[221,846],{},[221,848],{},"\n\n\nAkita International University's Japanese courses are fun. \n",[221,851],{},[38,853,854],{},"(Literally: AIU's \"courses of Japanese\" are fun.)",[75,856,858],{"id":857},"️-3-use-the-particle-を-to-mark-the-direct-object-of-a-sentence","➡️ 3. Use the particle を to mark the direct object of a sentence",[10,860,861,862,867],{},"\"",[14,863,866],{"href":864,"rel":865},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.grammarly.com\u002Fblog\u002Fgrammar\u002Fdirect-object\u002F",[91],"Direct object","\" is a fancy linguistic term that basically refers to the thing you're doing. It's hard to define without using more fancy linguistic terms, so I'll instead give you a few examples and make the direct object bold:",[43,869,870,876,881],{},[46,871,872,873,206],{},"I'm watching ",[124,874,875],{},"a movie",[46,877,878,879,206],{},"The bear is eating ",[124,880,134],{},[46,882,883,884],{},"She is reading ",[124,885,886],{},"a big green history book.",[10,888,889],{},"A direct object is the movie you're watching, the pizza you're eating, and the history book you're reading.",[10,891,892],{},"In Japanese, you indicate that a particular thing is the direct object of a sentence by attaching the particle を (wo, pronounced \"oh\") to it:",[43,894,895,917],{},[46,896,897,479,900,479,903,905,907,908,911,912,914,916],{},[23,898],{"lang":25,"syntax":899},"授業[じゅぎょう] で 映画[えいが] を 見[み,みる]ました{。}",[29,901,479],{"src":902,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_授業で映画を見ました。.mp3",[221,904],{},[221,906],{},"\n\n\njyugyou de eiga \n",[124,909,910],{},"wo","\n mimasita.\n",[221,913],{},[221,915],{},"\n\n\n(We) watched a movie in class.\n",[46,918,919,479,922,479,925,927,929,930,932,933,935,937],{},[23,920],{"lang":25,"syntax":921},"私[わたし] は 昨日[きのう]{、}パスタ を 食[た,たべる]べました{。}",[29,923,479],{"src":924,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_私は昨日、パスタを食べました。.mp3",[221,926],{},[221,928],{},"\n\n\nWatashi wa kinou, pasuta \n",[124,931,910],{},"\n tabemashita.\n",[221,934],{},[221,936],{},"\n\n\nYesterday, I ate pasta.\n",[10,939,940],{},"It's difficult to translate を into English because we use word order to indicate that something is a verb's direct object in English, so try not to overthink things. As you consume content in Japanese and see more example sentences, you'll quickly build an intuitive feel for how to use を.",[75,942,944],{"id":943},"️-4-use-the-particle-に-to-show-the-direction-of-an-action","➡️ 4. Use the particle に to show the direction of an action",[10,946,947],{},"Use に to say where you're going. For example:",[43,949,950],{},[46,951,952,479,955,479,958,960,962,963,966,967,969,971,972,975],{},[23,953],{"lang":25,"syntax":954},"飛行機[ひこうき] で 日本[にほん] に 行[ゆ,ゆく]きました{。}",[29,956,479],{"src":957,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_飛行機で日本に行きました。.mp3",[221,959],{},[221,961],{},"\n\n\nhikouki de nihon \n",[124,964,965],{},"ni","\n ikimashita. \n",[221,968],{},[221,970],{},"\n\n\nI went \n",[124,973,974],{},"to","\n Japan by plane.\n",[10,977,978],{},"You can also use に to communicate direction in a more abstract sense, such as who an action is aimed at:",[43,980,981],{},[46,982,983,479,986,479,989,991,962,993,966,995,997,999,1000,1002],{},[23,984],{"lang":25,"syntax":985},"友達[ともだち] に プレゼント を あげ[,あげる]ました{。}",[29,987,479],{"src":988,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_友達にプレゼントをあげました。.mp3",[221,990],{},[221,992],{},[124,994,965],{},[221,996],{},[221,998],{},"\n\n\nI gave a present \n",[124,1001,974],{},"\n my friend.\n",[10,1004,1005,1006,206],{},"The fancy way to explain this second usage of に is to say that it marks ",[14,1007,1010],{"href":1008,"rel":1009},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.grammarly.com\u002Fblog\u002Fgrammar\u002Findirect-object\u002F",[91],"indirect objects",[227,1012,1014,1017,1037],{"heading":1013},"A more technical usage of に",[10,1015,1016],{},"If you skimmed through the advanced usages of が above, you'd have seen this example sentence:",[43,1018,1019],{},[46,1020,1021,479,1023,479,1025,1027,1029,1030,1032,1033,1035,599],{},[23,1022],{"lang":25,"syntax":583},[29,1024,479],{"src":586,":type":32},[221,1026],{},[221,1028],{},"\n\n\nniwa \n",[124,1031,965],{},"\n kuma ga imasu.\n",[221,1034],{},[221,1036],{},[10,1038,1039],{},"And this, indeed, isn't communicating any sort of direction. This is beyond the scope of this article, but for now, just know that you will also see the particle に used to show where something exists, where something is, or where something is located.",[75,1041,1043],{"id":1042},"️-5-use-へ-to-show-a-more-general-direction","➡️ 5. Use へ to show a more general direction",[10,1045,1046],{},"The particle へ is also used to show where you are going, and it is generally interchangeable with に when used to indicate direction. Strictly speaking, に is used to indicate a destination, whereas へ indicates a direction.",[10,1048,1049],{},"Direction aside, there are a few set phrases that use へ:",[43,1051,1052,1069],{},[46,1053,1054,1055,1057,1059,1060,1063,1064,1066,1068],{},"~へようこそ ",[221,1056],{},[221,1058],{},"\n~ ",[124,1061,1062],{},"he"," youkoso ",[221,1065],{},[221,1067],{},"\nWelcome to (place)",[46,1070,1071,1072,1074,1076,1077,1079,1080,1082,1084],{},"未来への(thing) ",[221,1073],{},[221,1075],{},"\nmirai ",[124,1078,1062],{}," no ",[221,1081],{},[221,1083],{},"\n(Something) for the future",[75,1086,1088],{"id":1087},"️-6-use-the-particle-と-to-say-with-and-make-quotes","➡️ 6. Use the particle と to say \"with\" and make quotes",[10,1090,1091],{},"The most basic use of the particle と is simply to communicate togetherness. As shown in the following examples, it usually translates to \"and\" or \"with\":",[43,1093,1094,1115],{},[46,1095,1096,1099,479,1102,1104,1106,1107,1109,1110,1112,1114],{},[23,1097],{"lang":25,"syntax":1098},"猫[ねこ] と 犬[いぬ] が 好[す]き です{。}",[29,1100],{"src":1101,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-猫と犬が好きです。.mp3",[221,1103],{},[221,1105],{},"\n\n\nneko \n",[124,1108,974],{},"\n inu ga suki desu. \n",[221,1111],{},[221,1113],{},"\n\n\n(I) like cats and dogs.\n",[46,1116,1117,1120,1123,1125,1127,1128,1130,1131,1133,1135,1136,1139],{},[23,1118],{"lang":25,"syntax":1119},"私[わたし] は 昨日[きのう] 友達[ともだち] と 遊[あそ,あそぶ]びました{。}",[29,1121,479],{"src":1122,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-私は昨日友達と遊びました。.mp3",[221,1124],{},[221,1126],{},"\n\n\nwatashi wa kinou tomodachi \n",[124,1129,974],{},"\n asobimashita \n",[221,1132],{},[221,1134],{},"\n\n\nYesterday, I hung out (\n",[38,1137,1138],{},"lit: played","\n) with my friends.\n",[10,1141,1142],{},"Next, と can be used to make both direct and indirect quotes:",[43,1144,1145,1166],{},[46,1146,1147,1150,479,1153,1155,1157,1158,1160,1161,1163,1165],{},[23,1148],{"lang":25,"syntax":1149},"彼[かれ] は{、「}人生[じんせい] は 挑戦[ちょうせん] の 連続[れんぞく] だ{」}と 言[い,いう]った{。}",[29,1151],{"src":1152,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-彼は、「人生は挑戦の連続だ」と言った。.mp3",[221,1154],{},[221,1156],{},"\n\n\nkare wa, \"jinsei wa chousen no renzoku da\" \n",[124,1159,974],{},"\n itta. \n",[221,1162],{},[221,1164],{},"\n\n\nHe said, \"life is a series of challenges.\"\n",[46,1167,1168,1171,479,1174,1176,1178,1179,1181,1182,1184,1186],{},[23,1169],{"lang":25,"syntax":1170},"山[やま] は{「}やま[,やむ]{」}と 呼[よ,よぶ]びます{。}",[29,1172],{"src":1173,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-山は「やま」と呼びます。.mp3",[221,1175],{},[221,1177],{},"\n\n\n\"山\" wa yama \n",[124,1180,974],{},"\n yobimasu. \n",[221,1183],{},[221,1185],{},"\n\n\n\"山\" is pronounced \"yama\".\n",[10,1188,1189],{},"You will also see と used when making certain types of comparisons. You can learn these as you encounter them.",[75,1191,1193],{"id":1192},"️-7-use-the-particle-で-to-show-where-an-action-takes-place-or-the-means-by-which-an-action-is-done","➡️ 7. Use the particle で to show where an action takes place or the means by which an action is done",[10,1195,1196],{},"The particle で is used to show the location where something happens.",[43,1198,1199],{},[46,1200,1201,1204,479,1207,1209,1211,1212,1215,1216,1218,1220],{},[23,1202],{"lang":25,"syntax":1203},"公園[こうえん] で ご飯[ごはん] を 食[た,たべる]べました{。}",[29,1205],{"src":1206,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-公園でご飯を食べました。.mp3",[221,1208],{},[221,1210],{},"\n\n\nkouen \n",[124,1213,1214],{},"de","\n gohan wo tabimashita. \n",[221,1217],{},[221,1219],{},"\n\n\n(I) ate (a meal) at the park.\n",[10,1222,1223],{},"It's also used to define the scope of a statement:",[43,1225,1226],{},[46,1227,1228,1231,479,1234,1236,1238,1239,1241,1242,1244,1246],{},[23,1229],{"lang":25,"syntax":1230},"世界[せかい] で 一番[いちばん] 長[なが]い 川[かわ] は ナイル{」}です{。}",[29,1232],{"src":1233,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-世界で一番長い川はナイル」です。.mp3",[221,1235],{},[221,1237],{},"\n\n\nsekai \n",[124,1240,1214],{},"\n ichiban nagai kawa wa nairu desu. \n",[221,1243],{},[221,1245],{},"\n\n\nThe longest river in the world is the Nile.\n",[10,1248,1249],{},"You can also use で to show the means by which something is done, both in concrete and abstract contexts:",[43,1251,1252,1273],{},[46,1253,1254,1257,479,1260,1262,1264,1265,1267,1268,1270,1272],{},[23,1255],{"lang":25,"syntax":1256},"バス で 学校[がっこう] に 行[ゆ,ゆく]きます{。}",[29,1258],{"src":1259,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-バスで学校に行きます。.mp3",[221,1261],{},[221,1263],{},"\n\n\nbasu \n",[124,1266,1214],{},"\n gakkou ni ikimasu. \n",[221,1269],{},[221,1271],{},"\n\n\n(I) go to school by bus.\n",[46,1274,1275,1278,479,1281,1283,1285,1286,1288,1289,1291,1293],{},[23,1276],{"lang":25,"syntax":1277},"木[き] で 机[つくえ] を 作[つく,つくる]ります{。}",[29,1279],{"src":1280,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-木で机を作ります。.mp3",[221,1282],{},[221,1284],{},"\n\n\nki \n",[124,1287,1214],{},"\n tsukue wo tsukurimasu. \n",[221,1290],{},[221,1292],{},"\n\n\n(I) will make a desk out of wood.\n",[75,1295,1297],{"id":1296},"️-8-bonus-the-particles-から-and-より","➡️ 8. (Bonus) The particles から and より",[10,1299,1300],{},"The final two case particles are より and から.",[10,1302,1303],{},"から indicates the origin of something, and can be used in a variety of contexts:",[43,1305,1306,1328,1349],{},[46,1307,1308,1311,479,1314,1316,1318,1319,1322,1323,1325,1327],{},[23,1309],{"lang":25,"syntax":1310},"カフェ から 来[く,くる]ました{。}",[29,1312],{"src":1313,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-カフェから来ました。.mp3",[221,1315],{},[221,1317],{},"\n\n\nkafe \n",[124,1320,1321],{},"kara","\n kimashita. \n",[221,1324],{},[221,1326],{},"\n\n\n(I) came from the cafe.\n",[46,1329,1330,1333,479,1336,1338,1340,1341,1343,1344,1346,1348],{},[23,1331],{"lang":25,"syntax":1332},"田中[たなか] さん から 本[ほん] を 借[か,かりる]りました{。}",[29,1334],{"src":1335,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-田中さんから本を借りました。.mp3",[221,1337],{},[221,1339],{},"\n\n\nTanaka san \n",[124,1342,1321],{},"\n hon wo karimashita. \n",[221,1345],{},[221,1347],{},"\n\n\n(I) borrowed a book from Tanaka.\n",[46,1350,1351,1354,479,1357,1359,1361,1362,1364,1365,1367,1369],{},[23,1352],{"lang":25,"syntax":1353},"アクセント から する と 日本人[にほんじん] で は ない よう です{。}",[29,1355],{"src":1356,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-アクセントからすると日本人ではないようです。.mp3",[221,1358],{},[221,1360],{},"\n\n\nakusento \n",[124,1363,1321],{},"\n suru to, nihonjin dewanai you desu \n",[221,1366],{},[221,1368],{},"\n\n\nJudging by (their) accent, (they) don't seem to be Japanese.\n",[10,1371,1372],{},"より is used for making comparisons, and can be transated to \"than\".",[43,1374,1375],{},[46,1376,1377,1380,479,1383,1385,1387,1388,1391,1392,1394,1396],{},[23,1378],{"lang":25,"syntax":1379},"クマ は 私[わたし] より 背[せ] が 高[たか]い です{。}",[29,1381],{"src":1382,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-クマは私より背が高いです。.mp3",[221,1384],{},[221,1386],{},"\n\n\nkuma wa watashi \n",[124,1389,1390],{},"yori","\n se ga takai desu \n",[221,1393],{},[221,1395],{},"\n\n\nThe bear is taller than me.\n",[10,1398,1399,1400,1404],{},"As shown in ",[14,1401,1403],{"href":1402},"\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fhow-to-write-a-japanese-letter","our blog post on writing Japanese letters",", より can also mean \"from\" in some specific contexts.",[43,1406,1407,1425],{},[46,1408,1409,1410,27,1413,1415,1417,1418,27,1420,1422,1424],{},"サミより ",[29,1411],{"src":1412,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-サミより.mp3",[221,1414],{},[221,1416],{},"\nSami ",[124,1419,1390],{},[221,1421],{},[221,1423],{},"\nFrom Sami",[46,1426,1427,1430,479,1433,1435,1437,1438,1440,1441,1443,1445],{},[23,1428],{"lang":25,"syntax":1429},"日本[にほん] より 愛[あい] を こめ[,こめる]て{。}",[29,1431],{"src":1432,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-日本より愛をこめて。.mp3",[221,1434],{},[221,1436],{},"\n\n\nnihon \n",[124,1439,1390],{},"\n ai wo komete \n",[221,1442],{},[221,1444],{},"\n\n\nFrom Japan, with love.\n",[67,1447],{},[70,1449,1451],{"id":1450},"the-binding-particle-は","The \"binding\" particle は",[10,1453,1454,1455,1458,1461,1462,206],{},"And now we're ready to talk about the binding particle ( ",[23,1456],{"lang":25,"syntax":1457},"係助詞[かかりじょし]",[29,1459],{"src":1460,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-係助詞.mp3",") は, pronounced ",[38,1463,1464],{},"wa",[10,1466,1467,1468,1472],{},"は is normally the first the particle taught by ",[14,1469,1471],{"href":1470},"\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fbest-japanese-textbooks#genki-the-go-to-textbook-for-beginners","textbooks, such as Genki",". It's usually taught with this specific structure:",[43,1474,1475],{},[46,1476,1477,1478,1480,1482,1483,1485,1486,1488,1490],{},"X は Y です。",[221,1479],{},[221,1481],{},"\nX ",[124,1484,1464],{}," Y desu.",[221,1487],{},[221,1489],{},"\nX is Y.",[10,1492,1493],{},"This makes it seem like は means \"to be\", and this misunderstanding causes all sorts of problems. I've introduced は last, and in a completely separate category of particles, to try to avoid this issue.",[75,1495,1497],{"id":1496},"case-particles-vs-binding-particles","Case particles vs binding particles",[10,1499,1500,1501,1504],{},"As we said above, case particles indicate that a particular word in a sentence is playing a particular grammatical role. They simply ",[38,1502,1503],{},"mark"," the the function of a word.",[10,1506,1507,1508,1511],{},"Rather than simply marking the function of a word, however, binding particles ",[38,1509,1510],{},"add"," meaning to a word. When I look up 係助詞 in my Japanese dictionary, it's defined as:",[43,1513,1514,1519],{},[46,1515,258,1516],{},[23,1517],{"lang":25,"syntax":1518},"係[かかり] 助詞[じょし]は{、}種々[しゅじゅ] の 語[ご] に 付[つ,つく]き{、}その 語[ご] に 意味[いみ] を 添[そ]える と共[ととも]に{、}文[ぶん] の 終止[しゅうし] に まで 影響[えいきょう] を 及[およ]ぼす 助詞[じょし] で ある{。}",[46,1520,1521],{},"EN: Binding particles attach to various words and add meaning to those words while also influencing the sentence’s ending.",[10,1523,1524,1525,1527],{},"This is really important to understand. The particle は is something you ",[38,1526,1510],{}," to a word when you want to give it additional nuance.",[10,1529,1530],{},"In particular, は is used to (a) add an element of contrast to a sentence, or (b) elevate an element of a sentence to the status of \"topic\".",[75,1532,1534],{"id":1533},"use-は-to-show-contrast","Use は to show contrast",[10,1536,1537],{},"The first usage of は is pretty straightforward. It's used to add contrast to a sentence, as follows:",[43,1539,1540],{},[46,1541,1542,1545,479,1548,1550,1552,1553,1555,1556,1558,1560,1561,1564,1565,1568],{},[23,1543],{"lang":25,"syntax":1544},"お茶[おちゃ] は 飲[の,のむ]みます が{、}コーヒー は 飲[の,のむ]みません{。}",[29,1546],{"src":1547,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-お茶は飲みますが、コーヒーは飲みません。.mp3",[221,1549],{},[221,1551],{},"\n\n\nocha \n",[124,1554,1464],{},"\n nomimasu ga, koohii wa nomimasen. \n",[221,1557],{},[221,1559],{},"\n\n\nI drink \n",[38,1562,1563],{},"tea","\n, but I don't drink \n",[38,1566,1567],{},"coffee","\n.\n",[10,1570,1571,1572,1575,1576,1579],{},"Here, the contrast is that you ",[38,1573,1574],{},"do"," drink tea, but you ",[38,1577,1578],{},"don't"," drink something else.",[10,1581,1582],{},"You can also use は to hint at contrast. For example, let's look at that sentence about cats and dogs from earlier:",[43,1584,1585],{},[46,1586,1587,1589,479,1591,1593,1595,1596,1598,1114],{},[23,1588],{"lang":25,"syntax":1098},[29,1590],{"src":1101,":type":32},[221,1592],{},[221,1594],{},"\n\n\nneko to inu ga suki desu. \n",[221,1597],{},[221,1599],{},[10,1601,1602],{},"If this person had expressed this same sort of idea but instead chose to use the contrastive は:",[43,1604,1605],{},[46,1606,1607,1610,479,1613,1615,1617,1618,1620],{},[23,1608],{"lang":25,"syntax":1609},"{（}私[わたし] は{）}猫[ねこ] は 好[す]き です{。}",[29,1611],{"src":1612,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-(私は)猫は好きです。.mp3",[221,1614],{},[221,1616],{},"\n\n\n(watashi wa) neko \n",[124,1619,1464],{},"\n suki desu.\n",[10,1622,1623,1624,1627],{},"Then the nuance of the sentence would become \"(I) like cats ",[38,1625,1626],{},"(but there's something else I don't like)","\".",[75,1629,1631],{"id":1630},"use-は-to-indicate-the-topic-of-a-sentence","Use は to indicate the topic of a sentence",[10,1633,1634,1635,1640],{},"Don't think too hard about this: if something is the topic of a sentence, it's the thing that's being discussed. Here's how ",[14,1636,1639],{"href":1637,"rel":1638},"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.navy-p.com\u002Fdependency-marker-ha\u002F",[91],"a Japanese reference"," explains it:",[43,1642,1643,1648],{},[46,1644,258,1645],{},[23,1646],{"lang":25,"syntax":1647},"なお{、「}は{」}によって 題目[だいもく] を 示[しめ]す とき{、}題目[だいもく] の 箇所[かしょ] に は{“}提示[ていじ] し[,する]た 題目[だいもく] について{”}という 訳[わけ] が 当[あ,あてる]てられます{。}・・・中身[なかみ2] を 予告[よこく] する役割[やくわり]・・・",[46,1649,1650],{},"EN: When \"wa\" marks the topic, its function is to show that \"the sentence is about this\"... it serves to give a preview of the content of a sentence...",[10,1652,1653],{},"We don't have a grammar point that corresponds to は in English, so it can be difficult to wrap your head around. It's kind of like using a colon to introduce a list:",[43,1655,1656],{},[46,1657,1658],{},"Milk tea: delicious, comes in mugs or bottles, sold in various countries around the world",[10,1660,1661],{},"It's as if you've held up a sign that says \"milk tea\", and everybody starts shouting things that apply to milk tea, and nobody is confused because the sign makes it very clear that the topic of discussion is milk tea.",[10,1663,1664],{},"Compare the following two sentences:",[43,1666,1667,1688],{},[46,1668,1669,1672,479,1675,1677,1679,1680,1682,1683,1685,1687],{},[23,1670],{"lang":25,"syntax":1671},"キリン の 首[くび] が 長[なが]い です{。}",[29,1673],{"src":1674,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-キリンの首が長いです。.mp3",[221,1676],{},[221,1678],{},"\n\n\nkirin \n",[124,1681,785],{},"\n kubi ga nagai desu \n",[221,1684],{},[221,1686],{},"\n\n\nGiraffe's necks are long.\n",[46,1689,1690,1693,479,1696,1698,1679,1700,1682,1702,1704,1706],{},[23,1691],{"lang":25,"syntax":1692},"キリン は 首[くび] が 長[なが]い です{。}",[29,1694],{"src":1695,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-キリンは首が長いです。.mp3",[221,1697],{},[221,1699],{},[124,1701,1464],{},[221,1703],{},[221,1705],{},"\n\n\nGiraffes—(their) necks are long.\n",[10,1708,1709],{},"In the first sentence, we're making a statement about giraffe's necks. In the second sentence, we establish \"giraffe\" as the topic, and \"necks are long\" thus becomes a comment that refers to giraffes.",[67,1711],{},[70,1713,1715],{"id":1714},"this-is-confusing-japanese-particles-just-dont-make-sense","This is confusing! Japanese particles just don't make sense.",[10,1717,1718],{},"Indeed. This isn't just you: everybody struggles with particles when they first start out. We just don't have anything like Japanese's particles in English, so you've got no frame of reference to tie this stuff to, and that's not your fault. There's logic to how the particles work, but it'll take time to put your finger on because the particles follow a different kind of logic than English sentence structure does.",[10,1720,1721],{},"Particles will become second nature as you spend more time with Japanese, but until then, Migaku's Japanese Academy can get you started:",[1723,1724],"img",{"src":1725,"width":1726,"height":1727,"alt":1728},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-japanese-academy-mo.jpeg",1642,1152,"A screenshot from Migaku's Japanese course, showing how we help users learn Japanese vocabulary and grammar",[10,1730,1731],{},"The course follows an A:B format in which:",[43,1733,1734,1737],{},[46,1735,1736],{},"A → You learn about a grammar point",[46,1738,1739],{},"B → You use flashcards to learn sentences that feature that grammar point",[10,1741,1742,1743,1746],{},"But this isn't ",[38,1744,1745],{},"just"," another deck of flashcards. It's been insanely carefully curated. Every flashcard introduces a single new word, giving it a very smooth learing curve. If you can keep consistent for about 6 months (at a pace of 10 flashcards per day), you'll have acquired the ~1,500 words you need to follow 80% of Japanese Netflix.",[1748,1749],"prose-button",{"href":16,"text":1750},"Learn Japanese with Migaku",[67,1752],{},[70,1754,1756],{"id":1755},"common-sources-of-confusion","Common sources of confusion",[10,1758,1759],{},"Many of the particles have multiple meanings, and some of these meanings can appear quite similar. Now that we've talked about several of the basic particles, let's address a few common points of confusion.",[75,1761,1763],{"id":1762},"に-vs-で","に vs で",[10,1765,1766],{},"に and で can be confusing because they both answer the question of \"where\". The key to distinguishing them is understanding that \"where\" is a pretty broad term that can ask for a few different types of information.",[43,1768,1769,1776],{},[46,1770,1771,1772,1775],{},"Use に if the answer to \"where\" is a direction of movement ",[38,1773,1774],{},"or"," a place where something exists\u002Fresides\u002Fis",[46,1777,1778],{},"Use で if the answer to \"where\" is the location where something (an action) is being done",[10,1780,1781],{},"For example:",[43,1783,1784,1814,1843],{},[46,1785,1786,1789,479,1792,1794,1796,1797,1799,1800,1802,1804,1805,1807,1809,1810,1813],{},[23,1787],{"lang":25,"syntax":1788},"学校[がっこう] で 昼[ひる]ごはん を 食[た,たべる]べます{。}",[29,1790],{"src":1791,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-学校で昼ごはんを食べます。.mp3",[221,1793],{},[221,1795],{},"\n\n\ngakkou \n",[124,1798,1214],{},"\n hirugohan wo tabemasu. \n",[221,1801],{},[221,1803],{},"\n\n\n(I) eat lunch at school. \n",[221,1806],{},[221,1808],{},"\n\n\n→ School is the \n",[38,1811,1812],{},"location","\n where you are eating (doing something).\n",[46,1815,1816,1819,479,1822,1824,1796,1826,1828,1829,1831,1833,1834,1836,1838,1839,1842],{},[23,1817],{"lang":25,"syntax":1818},"今[いま] 学校[がっこう] に い[,いる]ます{。}",[29,1820],{"src":1821,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-今学校にいます.mp3",[221,1823],{},[221,1825],{},[124,1827,965],{},"\n imasu. \n",[221,1830],{},[221,1832],{},"\n\n\n(I'm) at school now. \n",[221,1835],{},[221,1837],{},"\n\n\n→ School is where you \n",[38,1840,1841],{},"are","\n (your current location)\n",[46,1844,1845,1848,479,1851,1853,1796,1855,1857,1858,1860,1862,1863,1865,1867],{},[23,1846],{"lang":25,"syntax":1847},"学校[がっこう] に 行[い]って い[,いる]ます{。}",[29,1849],{"src":1850,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-学校に行っています.mp3",[221,1852],{},[221,1854],{},[124,1856,965],{},"\n itteimasu \n",[221,1859],{},[221,1861],{},"\n\n\n(I'm) going to school. \n",[221,1864],{},[221,1866],{},"\n\n\n→ You are in movement, and school is your destination\n",[10,1869,1870,1871,1874],{},"So while 学校で and 学校に are both correct, the ",[38,1872,1873],{},"type"," of information that comes with each one is different.",[75,1876,1878],{"id":1877},"に-vs-へ","に vs へ",[10,1880,1881],{},"A long time ago, に and へ used to have different usages. At some point, へ began being used in similar situations as に. Today, they are largely interchangeable when communicating a direction of movement.",[10,1883,1884],{},"If we really want to split hairs, the nuance of each particle is slightly different:",[43,1886,1887,1890],{},[46,1888,1889],{},"に means \"to\": it emphasizes your destination, and shows specifically where you're going",[46,1891,1892],{},"へ means \"toward\": it emphasizes your direction in a more general fashion",[10,1894,1895],{},"And this lets us make an important clarification:",[43,1897,1898,1901],{},[46,1899,1900],{},"へ can pretty much always replace に because, if you arrived to Tokyo, you must necessarily have also gone in the direction of Tokyo",[46,1902,1903],{},"に cannot always replace へ, because the fact that you're headed in the direction of Tokyo now doesn't mean that you'll arrive there or even that it's your intended destination—just like saying that you're headed north doesn't mean that you're going to the North Pole",[67,1905],{},[75,1907,1909],{"id":1908},"は-vs-が","は vs が",[10,1911,1912],{},"I agree with you: は vs が is tough.",[10,1914,1915,1916,1921],{},"As a matter of fact, Japanese people agree with you, too: somebody literally wrote ",[14,1917,1920],{"href":1918,"rel":1919},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.amazon.co.jp\u002F%E3%80%8C%E3%81%AF%E3%80%8D%E3%81%A8%E3%80%8C%E3%81%8C%E3%80%8D-%E6%96%B0%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E8%AA%9E%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95%E9%81%B8%E6%9B%B8-1-%E9%87%8E%E7%94%B0-%E5%B0%9A%E5%8F%B2\u002Fdp\u002F487424128X",[91],"an entire book"," comparing the two particles. I'm not going to be able to do in a few paragraphs what took a Japanese linguist an entire book, so I'm going to take a different strategy with this section of the article.",[1923,1924,1925,1932],"ol",{},[46,1926,1927,1928,1931],{},"I'll talk through a sentence in which the topic and subject ",[38,1929,1930],{},"aren't"," the same",[46,1933,1934],{},"I'll translate some of the key points of the above book",[534,1936,1938],{"id":1937},"differentiating-subjects-and-topics","Differentiating subjects and topics",[10,1940,1941],{},"Part of the trouble you're having is because, in English, the topic and subject of a sentence are pretty much alawys identical. I can't personally think of a natural sentence where they aren't, at least.",[10,1943,1944],{},"So let's look at this Japanese sentence I shared earlier:",[43,1946,1947],{},[46,1948,1949,1951,479,1953,1955,1679,1957,1959,1960,1962,1963,1965,1706],{},[23,1950],{"lang":25,"syntax":1692},[29,1952],{"src":1695,":type":32},[221,1954],{},[221,1956],{},[124,1958,1464],{},"\n kubi \n",[124,1961,490],{},"\n nagai desu \n",[221,1964],{},[221,1966],{},[10,1968,1969],{},"I think it's pretty cool, from a linguistic perspective. That's because:",[43,1971,1972,1979],{},[46,1973,1974,1975,1978],{},"The ",[38,1976,1977],{},"topic"," of this sentence is a giraffe",[46,1980,1974,1981,1984],{},[38,1982,1983],{},"subject"," of this sentence is a neck",[10,1986,1987],{},"Which I understand is clear as mud.",[10,1989,1990,1991,1993],{},"But remember way back in the beginning of this article how I said that Japanese sentences revolve around the verb? That was a slight oversimplification. They actually revolve around what's called the predicate, which you can understand to be a verb ",[38,1992,1774],{}," a noun\u002Fadjective attached to です.",[10,1995,1996],{},"With this in mind, we're in a better position to break this sentence down:",[43,1998,1999,2005,2012],{},[46,2000,2001,2002],{},"The core of the sentence is ",[38,2003,2004],{},"are long",[46,2006,2007,2008,2011],{},"The subject particle が tells us ",[38,2009,2010],{},"what"," is long—necks",[46,2013,2014,2015,2018],{},"The topic particle は tells us that the above two things are a comment about ",[38,2016,2017],{},"something","—giraffes",[10,2020,2021],{},"It's hard to cleanly explain that with English logic, but if you pay attention, you'll see this topic-comment structure all over the place in Japanese. Eventually, it'll begin to feel natural.",[10,2023,2024],{},"And now let's get into the rules of thumb.",[534,2026,2028],{"id":2027},"use-は-to-reference-old-information-use-が-to-to-introduce-new-information","Use は to reference old information; use が to to introduce new information",[10,2030,2031],{},"If you're mentioning something for the first time, bring it up with が. After you've mentioned it once, you can use は to reference it.",[43,2033,2034],{},[46,2035,2036,2039,479,2042,2044,2046],{},[23,2037],{"lang":25,"syntax":2038},"昔々[むかしむかし]{、}おじいさん と おばあさん\u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>おっ[,おる]た{。}おじいさん は 山[やま] へ 芝[しば] 刈[が]り に{、}おばあさん\u003Cstrong>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>川[かわ] へ 洗濯[せんたく] に 行[ゆ,ゆく]った{。}",[29,2040],{"src":2041,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-昔々、おじいさんとおばあさんがおった。おじいさんは山へ芝刈りに、おばあさんは川へ洗濯に行った。.mp3",[221,2043],{},[221,2045],{},"\n\n\nOnce upon a time, there lived an old man and an old woman. The old man went to the mountains to cut firewood, and the old woman went to the river to do the laundry.\n",[10,2048,2049,2050,2052,2053,2056,2057,2060],{},"Notice that we actually do the same sort of thing in English! If you mention something for the first time, you use ",[38,2051,14],{}," or ",[38,2054,2055],{},"an",". Once you've mentioned it, you can then use ",[38,2058,2059],{},"the"," to reference that thing moving forward.",[10,2062,2063,2064],{},"Consider: ",[38,2065,2066,2069,2070,2073],{},[124,2067,2068],{},"A"," man walked into a forest with a pizza. ",[124,2071,2072],{},"The"," man left the forest with no pizza. Oh, the intrigue!",[534,2075,2077],{"id":2076},"use-は-to-make-judgments-use-が-to-make-observations","Use は to make judgments; use が to make observations",[10,2079,2080],{},"If you're seeing something and somehow interpreting it—giving an opinion, casting a judgment, making an evaluation—use は. If you're making note of a natural phenomenon, something that exists independent of you and your thoughts, use が.",[43,2082,2083,2102],{},[46,2084,2085,2086,2089,27,2092,2094,2096,2097,2099,2101],{},"Judgment: ",[23,2087],{"lang":25,"syntax":2088},"あの 桜[さくら]\u003Cstrong>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>とても きれい だ{。}",[29,2090],{"src":2091,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-あの桜はとてもきれいだ。.mp3",[221,2093],{},[221,2095],{},"\nThat sakura tree is very pretty. ",[221,2098],{},[221,2100],{},"\n→ \"Pretty\" is a subjective judgment; you're giving your opinion.",[46,2103,2104,2105,2108,27,2111,2113,2115,2116,2118,2120],{},"Observation: ",[23,2106],{"lang":25,"syntax":2107},"雪[ゆき]\u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>降[ふ]って いる",[29,2109],{"src":2110,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-雪が降っている.mp3",[221,2112],{},[221,2114],{},"\nSnow is falling. ",[221,2117],{},[221,2119],{},"\n→ This will happen regardless of whether you know, care, or exist.",[534,2122,2124],{"id":2123},"use-は-for-sentences-use-が-for-clauses","Use は for sentences; use が for clauses",[10,2126,2127,2128,2130,2131,2134,2135,2138],{},"A ",[38,2129,244],{}," is a fancy grammatical term that refers to a chunk of a sentence. Some clauses can stand on their own (",[38,2132,2133],{},"Sami writes.","), while other clauses can't make a full sentence by themselves (",[38,2136,2137],{},"If Sami writes...",").",[10,2140,2141],{},"In Japanese, you should use は when you introduce something that pertains to the entire sentence, but use が when introducing something that is only relevant within one clause of a sentence.",[43,2143,2144],{},[46,2145,2146,2149,479,2152,2154,2156,2157,2159,2161,2162,2164,2166],{},[23,2147],{"lang":25,"syntax":2148},"昨日[きのう] 彼女[かのじょ]\u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>作[つく,つくる]った ケーキ\u003Cstrong>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>{、}とても おいしかった{。}",[29,2150],{"src":2151,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-昨日彼女が作ったケーキは、とてもおいしかった。.mp3",[221,2153],{},[221,2155],{},"\n\n\nThe cake that the woman made yesterday was very delicious. \n",[221,2158],{},[221,2160],{},"\n\n\n→ The core of the sentence is \"it was very delciious\", and this statement applies to the cake, so the cake is marked with は\n",[221,2163],{},[221,2165],{},"\n\n\n→ \"that the woman made yesterday\" describes the cake, not \"it was very delicious\", so \"that the woman made yesterday\" is marked with が\n",[10,2168,2169],{},"Notice that ケーキは、とてもおいしかった。 (\"the cake was very delicious\") works just fine as a complete sentence. The clause 昨日彼女が作った (\"that the woman made yesterday\") adds extra information that describes the cake, which is just one part of the sentence.",[534,2171,2173],{"id":2172},"use-は-to-introduce-contrast-use-が-to-point-a-finger","Use は to introduce contrast; use が to point a finger",[10,2175,2176],{},"If you're trying to highlight a contrast between two things, or simply alluding to contrast, use は. If you're making a specific statement that exclusively applies to one specific thing, use が.",[43,2178,2179,2204],{},[46,2180,2181,2182,2185,27,2188,2190,2192,2193,2195,2196,2198,2199,2201,2203],{},"Contrast: ",[23,2183],{"lang":25,"syntax":2184},"お茶[ちゃ]\u003Cstrong>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>飲[の,のめる]めます が{、}コーヒー\u003Cstrong>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>飲[の,のめる]めません{。}",[29,2186],{"src":2187,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-お茶は飲めますが、コーヒーは飲めません。.mp3",[221,2189],{},[221,2191],{},"\nI can drink ",[38,2194,1563],{},", but not ",[38,2197,1567],{},". ",[221,2200],{},[221,2202],{},"\n→ † Yep! This is that same contrastive は that we talked about above.",[46,2205,2206,2207,2210,27,2213,2215,2217,2220,2221,2223,2225],{},"Exclusivity: ",[23,2208],{"lang":25,"syntax":2209},"彼[かれ]\u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>アメリカ人[あめりかじん] です{。}",[29,2211],{"src":2212,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-彼がアメリカ人です。.mp3",[221,2214],{},[221,2216],{},[38,2218,2219],{},"He"," (specifically him, that guy [kinda feels like you're pointing a finger]) is American. ",[221,2222],{},[221,2224],{},"\n→ Yep! This is the same thing we talked about in \"a few specific situations where が is used\".",[10,2227,2228],{},[38,2229,2230],{},"† Note: Given this particular nuance, some Japanese linguists argue that the contrastive は doesn't actually exist. According to them, the contrastive nature that は gives to some sentences is a byproduct of making something a topic and lifting it \"above\" the sentence.",[534,2232,2234],{"id":2233},"use-は-when-stating-a-characteristic-of-something-use-が-or-は-when-equating-two-things","Use は when stating a characteristic of something; use が or は when equating two things",[10,2236,2237],{},"You're going to need to work with me a bit on this one.",[10,2239,2240],{},"Imagine that we split a sentence in half and got something like {Part A:Part B}.",[10,2242,2243],{},"If \"part B\" is a characteristic of \"part A\", then you should use は:",[43,2245,2246],{},[46,2247,2248,2249,2252,27,2255,2257,2259,2260,2262,2264],{},"Characteristic: ",[23,2250],{"lang":25,"syntax":2251},"チキン は 鳥[とり] です{。}",[29,2253],{"src":2254,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-チキンは鳥です。.mp3",[221,2256],{},[221,2258],{},"\nChickens are birds. ",[221,2261],{},[221,2263],{},"\n→ It's always true that chickens are birds, but it's not always true that a given bird is a chicken. As such, \"chicken\" is not equivalent with \"bird\"; instead, \"bird\" is a quality\u002Fcharacteristic that applies to \"chicken\".",[10,2266,2267],{},"If \"Part B\" is the same thing as \"Part A\", then you can use either が or は, but your choice will affect how the sentence needs to be organized. You often run into this situation in statements where you could replace one of the halves with a question word, as shown below:",[43,2269,2270,2291],{},[46,2271,2272,2273,2276,27,2279,2281],{},"Equivalence: ",[23,2274],{"lang":25,"syntax":2275},"田中[たなか] さん が 先生[せんせい] です{。}",[29,2277],{"src":2278,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-田中さんが先生です.mp3",[221,2280],{},[43,2282,2283],{},[46,2284,2285,2286,2288,2290],{},"Mr. Tanaka is the teacher. ",[221,2287],{},[221,2289],{},"\n→ In this situation, \"Mr. Tanaka\" and \"the teacher\" are synonymous—they both indicate the asme person",[46,2292,2272,2293,2296,27,2299,2301],{},[23,2294],{"lang":25,"syntax":2295},"先生[せんせい] は 田中[たなか] さん です{。}",[29,2297],{"src":2298,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-先生は田中さんです。.mp3",[221,2300],{},[43,2302,2303],{},[46,2304,2305,2306,2308,2310],{},"The teacher is Mr. Tanaka. ",[221,2307],{},[221,2309],{},"\n→ Flipping these two words doesn't change the meaning of the sentence.",[10,2312,2313],{},"As mentioned, we can replace \"Mr. Tanaka\" with a question word:",[43,2315,2316,2337],{},[46,2317,2318,2319,2322,27,2325,2327],{},"Question: ",[23,2320],{"lang":25,"syntax":2321},"誰[だれ] か ゙ 先生[せんせい] て ゙すか{。}",[29,2323],{"src":2324,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-誰が先生ですか.mp3",[221,2326],{},[43,2328,2329],{},[46,2330,2331,2332,2334,2336],{},"Who is the teacher?. ",[221,2333],{},[221,2335],{},"\n→ Question words come before が",[46,2338,2318,2339,2342,27,2345,2347],{},[23,2340],{"lang":25,"syntax":2341},"先生[せんせい] は 誰[だれ] て ゙すか{。}",[29,2343],{"src":2344,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-先生は誰ですか.mp3",[221,2346],{},[43,2348,2349],{},[46,2350,2351,2352,2354,2356],{},"The teacher is who? ",[221,2353],{},[221,2355],{},"\n→ Question words come after は",[10,2358,2359],{},"Both of these two sentence pairs mean the same thing, the nuance is just a little different.",[43,2361,2362,2369],{},[46,2363,2364,2365,2368],{},"Remember the topic-comment structure we discussed in the は section? When we use は and establish Mr. Tanaka as the topic, the weight of the sentence gets placed on the comment: what ",[38,2366,2367],{},"about"," Mr. Tanaka are we commenting? That he's the teacher.",[46,2370,2371],{},"Remember way back in the beginning of the article how we said that Japanese sentences revolve around the predicate? When you use が in these kinds of A=B sentences, you're emphasizing whatever comes before が. The point of interest is the thing that you're equating to the predicate.",[67,2373],{},[70,2375,2377],{"id":2376},"some-practice-exercises","Some practice exercises",[10,2379,2380],{},"That was a lot of information. Let's pratcice a bit, to make sure you've got these particles down.",[1923,2382,2383,2401,2419,2437,2453],{},[46,2384,2385,2388,479,2391,2393,2395,2396,2398,2400],{},[23,2386],{"lang":25,"syntax":2387},"日本[にっぽん] ____ 行[い]きます{。}",[29,2389],{"src":2390,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-日本に行きます。.mp3",[221,2392],{},[221,2394],{},"\n\n\n(I'm) going to Japan. \n",[221,2397],{},[221,2399],{},"\n\n\nParticle: を、に、が\n",[46,2402,2403,2406,479,2409,2411,2413,2414,2416,2418],{},[23,2404],{"lang":25,"syntax":2405},"昼[ひる]ごはん は 学校[がっこう] ____ 食[た,たべる]べます{。}",[29,2407],{"src":2408,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-昼ごはんは学校で食べます。.mp3",[221,2410],{},[221,2412],{},"\n\n\n(I) have lunch at school. \n",[221,2415],{},[221,2417],{},"\n\n\nParticle: で、に、を\n",[46,2420,2421,2424,479,2427,2429,2431,2432,2434,2436],{},[23,2422],{"lang":25,"syntax":2423},"私[わたし] は 日本語[にほんご] ____ 勉強[べんきょう] し[,する]て い[,いる]ます{。}",[29,2425],{"src":2426,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-私は日本語を勉強しています。.mp3",[221,2428],{},[221,2430],{},"\n\n\nI am studying Japanese. \n",[221,2433],{},[221,2435],{},"\n\n\nParticle: が、と、を\n",[46,2438,2439,2440,27,2443,2445,2447,2448,2450,2452],{},"これ____ペンです。",[29,2441],{"src":2442,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-これはペンです。.mp3",[221,2444],{},[221,2446],{},"\nThis is a pen. ",[221,2449],{},[221,2451],{},"\nParticle: は、から、と",[46,2454,2455,2458,479,2461,2463,2465,2466,2468,2470],{},[23,2456],{"lang":25,"syntax":2457},"作家[さっか] ____ 誰[だれ] ですか{？}",[29,2459],{"src":2460,":type":32},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-作家は誰ですか？.mp3",[221,2462],{},[221,2464],{},"\n\n\nThe author is who? \n",[221,2467],{},[221,2469],{},"\n\n\nParticle: は、が\n",[227,2472,2474],{"heading":2473},"Click to see answers",[1923,2475,2476,2479,2486,2492,2495],{},[46,2477,2478],{},"The answer is に because you are talking about where you are going.",[46,2480,2481,2482,2485],{},"The answer is で because you are doing an action (eating) at school. You could use に to say that you were ",[38,2483,2484],{},"going"," to school, or を to say what you were eating for lunch.",[46,2487,2488,2489,2491],{},"The answer is を because Japanese is ",[38,2490,2010],{}," you are studying. You could use と to say who you are studying with.",[46,2493,2494],{},"The answer is は. We've made \"this\" the topic of the sentence by marking it with は, and \"pen\" is something that pertains to the topic.",[46,2496,2497],{},"The answer is は. Remember, we said that question words come after は. To use が, we would have to flip the sentence around: 誰が作家ですか？",[67,2499],{},[70,2501,2503],{"id":2502},"concluding-thoughts","Concluding thoughts",[10,2505,2506],{},"Particles are little grammatical tags that get attached to words (or phrases) in a sentence in order to show what function those words and phrases have in the sentence. They can be difficult for English speakers to get used to because we use word order to do the job done by Japanese particles.",[10,2508,2509],{},"If you're feeling a little overwhelmed, that's OK. We covered a lot of information, and we don't expect you to memorize it. So long as you loosely understand what each particle does, you'll gradually develop a more accurate understanding of how it works as you consume more Japanese content and see more particles used in more sentences.",[10,2511,2512],{},"Good luck!",[10,2514,2515,2516,2521],{},"_P.S. — Wikipedia has a pretty ",[14,2517,2520],{"href":2518,"rel":2519},"https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FJapanese_particles",[91],"awesome list of Japanese particles and their usage",". There's a lot there, so don't try to memorize it, but go ahead and skim through it from time to time!",{"title":2523,"searchDepth":2524,"depth":2524,"links":2525},"",2,[2526,2532,2533,2534,2544,2549,2550,2555,2556],{"id":72,"depth":2524,"text":73,"children":2527},[2528,2530,2531],{"id":77,"depth":2529,"text":78},3,{"id":154,"depth":2529,"text":155},{"id":209,"depth":2529,"text":210},{"id":302,"depth":2524,"text":303},{"id":361,"depth":2524,"text":362},{"id":418,"depth":2524,"text":419,"children":2535},[2536,2537,2538,2539,2540,2541,2542,2543],{"id":467,"depth":2529,"text":468},{"id":763,"depth":2529,"text":764},{"id":857,"depth":2529,"text":858},{"id":943,"depth":2529,"text":944},{"id":1042,"depth":2529,"text":1043},{"id":1087,"depth":2529,"text":1088},{"id":1192,"depth":2529,"text":1193},{"id":1296,"depth":2529,"text":1297},{"id":1450,"depth":2524,"text":1451,"children":2545},[2546,2547,2548],{"id":1496,"depth":2529,"text":1497},{"id":1533,"depth":2529,"text":1534},{"id":1630,"depth":2529,"text":1631},{"id":1714,"depth":2524,"text":1715},{"id":1755,"depth":2524,"text":1756,"children":2551},[2552,2553,2554],{"id":1762,"depth":2529,"text":1763},{"id":1877,"depth":2529,"text":1878},{"id":1908,"depth":2529,"text":1909},{"id":2376,"depth":2524,"text":2377},{"id":2502,"depth":2524,"text":2503},"Particles are little grammatical tags that attach to words and show the role they play in a sentence. Here, we introduce 10 basic Japanese particles.","md",{"timestampUnix":2560,"slug":2561,"h1":2562,"image":2563,"tags":2568},1730339266484,"japanese-particles-guide","Mastering the Basics of Japanese Particles",{"src":2564,"width":2565,"height":2566,"alt":2567},"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-japanese-particles.webp",4874,3249,"A photo of someone playing with tinker toys, referencing how particles are like the nuts and bolts that hold Japanese sentences together.",[2569,2570,2571,2572],"fundamentals","grammar","particles","deepdive",true,"\u002Farticle\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particles","---\ntitle: 'The Complete Beginner’s Guide to Japanese Particles'\ndescription: 'Particles are little grammatical tags that attach to words and show the role they play in a sentence. Here, we introduce 10 basic Japanese particles.'\ntimestampUnix: 1730339266484\nslug: 'japanese-particles-guide'\nh1: 'Mastering the Basics of Japanese Particles'\nimage:\n  src: '\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-japanese-particles.webp'\n  width: 4874\n  height: 3249\n  alt: 'A photo of someone playing with tinker toys, referencing how particles are like the nuts and bolts that hold Japanese sentences together.'\ntags:\n  - fundamentals\n  - grammar\n  - particles\n  - deepdive\n---\n\nParticles are tiny little grammatical tags that clarify the relationships between words in a sentence. They aren't concrete words like \"bear\" or \"pizza\" and cannot stand on their own, but they're important. You'll see them in virtually every Japanese sentence, so if you want to [learn Japanese](\u002Flearn-japanese), you need to get your head around Japanese particles.\n\nLooking at the Japanese word for particle, \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"助詞[じょし]\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_助詞.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio>, we see 助 (\"help\" or \"assist\") and 詞 (\"part of speech\"). This is fitting. In Japanese, particles attach to other words in order to add context to a sentence by indicating what function a word (or even phrase) is playing within that sentence. Literally speaking, particles are parts of speech that help us connect words together.\n\nIf we translated the sentence _\"that bear is eating my pizza!\"_ into Japanese, we'd end up using two particles:\n\n- The particle が \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_が.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> would attach to \"bear\" to show that it's the thing which is doing the eating\n- The particle を \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_を.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> would attach to \"pizza\" to show that it's the thing being eaten\n\nIn this post we'll talk about:\n\n\u003Ctoc>\u003C\u002Ftoc>\n\n---\n\n## Japanese sentences vs English sentences\n\n### Differences due to sentence structure\n\nIn the post on [the world's hardest languages](\u002Fblog\u002Flanguage-fun\u002Fthe-most-difficult-language), we talked about how languages can be analyzed in several ways. Linguists classify languages according to [nearly 200 features](https:\u002F\u002Fwals.info\u002Ffeature), and one of those features has to do with how information within a sentence is organized.\n\n- English is a [subject-verb-object (SVO)](https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FSubject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object_word_order) language\n- Japanese is a [subject-object-verb (SOV)](https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FSubject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb_word_order) language\n\nThis has broad implications for how sentences get organized in Japanese and English, but, for now, let's just look at a simple sentence:\n\n- English says _**A bear** (subject) **is eating** (verb) **a pizza** (object)_\n- Japanese says _**A bear** (subject) **a pizza** (object) **is eating** (verb)_\n\nNotice that the verb goes at the very end of a Japanese sentence, not in the middle.\n\n### Differences due to culture\n\nAdditionally, whereas most English countries are [low-context cultures](https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FHigh-context_and_low-context_cultures), Japan is a high-context culture (see the same link). This affects sentence structure in that English speakers tend to make information explicit, even when it is redundant, but Japanese speakers omit redundant information where possible.\n\nSo if we take a question like \"Did you eat the pizza?\", we might get responses like this:\n\n- EN 1: Yes, I ate it.\n- EN 2: No, the bear ate it.\n- JA 1: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"うん{、}食[た,たべる]べた{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_うん、食べた。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> (\"Yes, ate.\")\n- JA 2: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"ううん{、}クマ が 食[た,たべる]べた{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_ううん、クマが食べた。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> (\"No, bear ate.\")\n\nIn English, the responses explicitly re-affirm who did what. In Japanese, however, since the initial question correctly states who did the eating (you) and what was eaten (the pizza), the \"JA 1\" response doesn't repeat that information. In the \"JA 2\" response, the speaker makes use of the が particle, as it's now necessary to clarify that the pizza was eaten by _the bear_, not by _me_.\n\n### The key point\n\nWith this difference in mind, we end up with a somewhat profound insight into how Japanese sentences differ from English ones:\n\n> English sentences boil down to subjects that do things. \u003Cbr>\u003Cbr> Japanese sentences boil down to a single verb† and, optionally, the context surrounding it.\n\n\u003Caccordion heading=\"† A pedantic note\">\n\nTo be really technical, Japanese sentences consist of [a _predicate_](\u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FPredicate_(grammar)>) and any necessary context surrounding it. A predicate is the part of a sentence (technically called a _clause_) which says something about the subject. It may be a verb (John runs), an adjective (John is tall), or even a noun (John is a man).\n\n[The simplest Japanese explanation](https:\u002F\u002Fchasoblogjapan.com\u002Fhatoga\u002F) of this I've found says:\n\n- JA: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"日本語[にほんご] は{【}述語[じゅつご]{】}を 中心[ちゅうしん] に{、}複数[ふくすう] の 成分[せいぶん] から 構成[こうせい] さ[,する]れます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Cbr>\u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"要[よう]するに{、「}必要[ひつよう] な 言葉[ことば]{＋}述語[じゅつご]{」}が 日本語[にほんご] の 基本[きほん] な[,な]ん です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\n- EN: Focusing around the predicate, Japanese (sentences) consist of multiple parts. In essence, Japanese sentences consist of \"a predicate\" and \"(other) necessary words\".\n\nAnd here's how my Japanese dictionary defines 述語 (predicate):\n\n- JA: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"文[ぶん] の 成分[せいぶん] の 一[いち]{。}文中[ぶんちゅう] で{「}何[なに] が どう する{」「}何[なに] が どんな だ{」「}何[なに] が 何[なん]だ{」}における{「}どう する{」「}どんな だ{」「}なん だ{」}に 当[あ]たる 語[ご] または 文節[ぶんせつ] を いう{。「}花[はな] が 散[ち]る{」「}頬[ほお] が 赤[あか]い{」「}あれ が 駅[えき] だ{」}における{「}散[ち]る{」「}赤[あか]い{」「}駅[えき] だ{」}の 類[るい]{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\n- EN: (The predicate) is one of the components of a sentence. In a sentence, it refers to the (words\u002Fphrase\u002Fclause) that corresponds to \"{thing}\" in \"X does {thing},\" \"is like {descriptor}\" in \"Y is like {descriptor},\" or \"is {thing}\" in \"Z is {thing}.\" Examples include \"fall\" in \"the flowers fall,\" \"red\" in \"the cheeks are red,\" and \"is the station\" in \"that is the station.\"\n\nIn casual speech and some fixed phrases, you may also see sentences where the verb has been omitted. Perhaps the most common example is それはちょっと・・・\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-それはちょっとぉぉ・・・.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio>, which is used to politely refrain from answering a question or carrying out a request.\n\n---\n\n\u003C\u002Faccordion>\n\nIf it's necessary for a sentence to consist of more than just a verb, you (a) add in any necessary context words and (b) attach a particle that clarifies how those words relate to the sentence's main verb.\n\nAnd now you might ask:\n\n---\n\n## Why do Japanese sentences need particles, anyway?\n\nWhen you saw that sentence about the pizza-eating bear, something like this might have gone through your head:\n\n> If English can say _\"that bear is eating my pizza!\"_ without using particles, why do they suddenly become necessary when we say that sentence in Japanese?\n\nAnd that's an excellent question to be asking. The answer is a little abstract, so I'll make a metaphor.\n\nBear with me for a moment and imagine that you want to go to [the Ueno Zoological Gardens](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Fsearch?num=10&sca_esv=5cf43fb2a73d6eec&sxsrf=ADLYWIJJz9rF6nAhMdzyRat5svKC2ytLKg:1728954225320&q=ueno+zoo&udm=2&fbs=AEQNm0BqbPbAzSj6PhNr7nv9Ltx-oFh8tVsgXi1MyFbswNtTUOS5b68chsyOj2QEdx4EPnNHj-rfVa2Eb1VCscGX2ZUj5r8ZOZRpZPWpmGRpRWIG4vnBpwS1Khes1PynNnzkhGAwsjNymIEagZDR9C9QEbmDPkR4-PLgcE1kK1jdKjsiptWX900piQTBNnKXkMbFe2Fc99dxN9DkqHom-yRhNVZ205e_LT-7K4smq681js2gF_X4pFM&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwifiruzmI-JAxUhC3kGHU3RLxIQtKgLegQIDhAB&biw=1240&bih=880&dpr=2#vhid=buu71Lm2u8fWTM&vssid=mosaic) in Tokyo. You can get to the zoo via bike or train, and your route will be impacted by the mode of transportation you choose: a train _must_ follow tracks, but a bicycle probably won't ever follow train tracks. In other words, your destination is fixed, but your route is variable\n\nIn the same way, while every language is capable of communicating any message, how the sentence conveying that message will look depends on each particular language's structure and features. Just like a bicycle and train will take different routes to get to the same place, English and Japanese take different approaches to communicating the same message.\n\nOne of the key differences between English and Japanese is as follows:\n\n- **English depends on word order**: English doesn't have particles that clarify the job of each word\u002Fphrase in a sentence, and this makes word order very important. If you switch the order of \"pizza\" and \"bear\" in \"the bear ate the pizza\", you end up with a bear-eating pizza. The whole system breaks down and you wind up with the stuff of nightmares.\n- **Japanese depends on particles**: Japanese has particles that clarify the job of each word\u002Fphrase in a sentence, and this reduces the importance of word order. If you switch the order of \"pizza\" and \"bear\" in \"the bear ate the pizza\", your sentence will still mean \"the bear ate the pizza\" because を marks the pizza as the thing that got eaten and が marks the bear as the thing that did the eating.\n\nBasically, lacking a strict word order like that of English, Japanese needs to take a different approach to making it clear which parts of a sentence are doing what.\n\nAnd that's where the particles come in.\n\n---\n\n## How to use Japanese particles\n\nNow that you know a bit about Japanese sentences and what particles are for, let's see how you actually _use_ particles. Below is a simple Japanese sentence with the particles highlighted in red.\n\n- JA: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"日本語[にほんご] の[;a] 助詞[じょし] を[;a] 紹介[しょうかい] する ため{、}例文[れいぶん] を[;a] 書[か,かく;]きました{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-日本語の助詞を紹介するため、例文を書きました。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio>\n\n- EN: I wrote an example sentence in order to introduce Japanese particles.\n\nThis sentence includes three particles:\n\n- In 日本語の助詞, the particle の connects 日本語 (Japanese) to 助詞 (particles); a more literal way to translate this would be \"the particles **of** Japanese\"\n- In 日本語の助詞を紹介する, the particle を shows that 日本語の助詞 (Japanese particles) is what's being introduced; notice that 日本語の助詞 is a phrase\n- In 例文を書きました, the particle を shows that 例文 (example sentence) is what's being written; notice that 例文 is a single word\n\nIt'll take a bit of practice to remember which particles do what, but once you've got that down, actually _using_ the particles is pretty easy. You just take the particle you want and attach it directly to the end of a word or phrase.\n\nIf you can wrap your head around that, excellent! Pretty much all Japanese grammar has to do with either how verbs change forms or how particles attach to nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Even a lot of things that aren't particles (such as ため, \"in order to\", from our above example sentence) function in the same way that particles do: just tack them onto the end of the word or phrase they modify.\n\nAnd now we can finally start talking about some basic Japanese particles.\n\n---\n\n## The \"case\" particles: が, の, を, に, へ, と, で, から and より\n\nIn linguistics, [grammatical case](https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FGrammatical_case) refers to the role a particular noun or noun phrase is playing in a sentence. Some languages show grammatical case via word order (like English) or by [inflecting](https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FInflection) a noun (like Russian). In Japanese, case particles (\u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"各[かく] 助詞[じょし]\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_各助詞.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio>) are used to show the relationship a noun or noun phrase has with the verb of a sentence.\n\nThese particles are so integral to how Japanese sentences work that Japanese actually has [grammar points that turn adjectives into nouns (~さ and ~み](https:\u002F\u002Fimabi.org\u002Fadjective-nominalization\u002F), and also [~く](https:\u002F\u002Fimabi.org\u002Fadjective-nominalization-ii\u002F)) and [grammar points that turn verbs into nouns (の, こと, and もの)](https:\u002F\u002Fimabi.org\u002Fnominalization\u002F).\n\nAnd now we can talk about nine basic Japanese particles:\n\n### ➡️ 1. Use the particle が to mark the subject of a sentence\n\nUse the particle が (ga) to mark the subject of a sentence: the thing doing an action or the thing being described. We'll get a bit more nuanced than this, but in this very general sense, this particle is pretty straightforward:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"サミ が 記事[きじ] を 書[か,かく]きました{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_サミが記事を書きました。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  Sami **ga** kiji wo kakimashita\u003Cbr>\n  Sami wrote an article.\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"頭[あたま] が 痛[いた]い です\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_頭が痛いです.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  atama **ga** itai desu.\u003Cbr>\n  (My) head hurts.\n\n> Notice in this second sentence that the word _my_ has been omitted. We aren't telepathic, so if somebody states that a head is hurting, they're probably talking about their own head. Remember, Japanese omits information where possible!\n\n\u003Caccordion heading=\"A few specific situations where が is also used\">\n\u003Cbr>\nHere are a few more situations in which the subject-marking particle が is used.\n\n#### When talking about the existence of something\n\nWhen stating that something exists in English we use \"there is\" or \"there are,\" but in Japanese, you'll place が after whatever it is that exists, along with a Japanese verb that indicates existence.\n\nFor _animate_ objects (things that are alive), use ~がいる\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"テーブル の 上[うえ] に 教科書[きょうかしょ] が あり[,ある]ます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_テーブルの上に教科書があります。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  tēburu no ue ni kyōkasho **ga** arimasu.\u003Cbr>\n  There's a book on the table.\n\nFor _inanimate_ objects (things that aren't alive), use ~がある\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"庭[にわ] に クマ が い[,いる]ます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_庭にクマがいます。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  niwa ni kuma **ga** imasu.\u003Cbr>\n  There's a bear in the garden.\n\n#### When talking about senses\u002Femotions\n\nWhen you talk about your senses (things you hear, see, etc.) or things you feel (cold\u002Fsad, like\u002Fwant something), you'll use が in Japanese.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"いい 匂[にお]い が し[,する]ます{！}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_いい匂いがします！.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  ii nioi**ga** shimasu!.\u003Cbr>\n  (Something) smells good!\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"未来[みらい] が 怖[こわ]い です[]{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_未来が怖いです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  mirai**ga** kowai desu.\u003Cbr>\n  The future is scary.\n\n#### When talking about things you can do\n\nWhen you put a verb into the [potential form](https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FJapanese_conjugation#Potential) to say that something \"can\" be done (_he reads_ vs _he **can** read_), you'll mark the thing that can be done with が.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"日本語[にほんご] が 話[はな,はなせる]せます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_日本語が話せます。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  nihongo**ga** hanasemasu.\u003Cbr>\n  (I) can speak Japanese.\n\n#### When picking something out of a group\n\nIt's a bit hard to put into words, but the particle が creates a feeling that you're singling something out. Imagine that, for whatever reason, you wear glasses... and that there was a small hurricane in your school or workplace, which caused some chaos, and now there are a hundred pairs of glasses on the floor.\n\nWhen you eventually find yours, you might hold them up in the air and (triumphantly) announce:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"これ が 私[わたし] の メガネ です！\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_これが私のメガネです.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  Kore**ga** watashi no megane desu.\u003Cbr>\n  _These_ are my glasses!\n\nIf you look closely, you can kind of see this nuance in the usages listed above.\n\n- What's in the garden? _A bear._\n- What's scary? _The future._\n- What language can you speak? _Japanese._\n\n\u003C\u002Faccordion>\n\nUnfortunately, it's a bit difficult to translate が because we convey the subject of a sentence via word order in English. As you consume more Japanese content, you'll eventually develop a feel for it.\n\n### ➡️ 2. Use the particle の to show possession or belonging\u002Fassociation\n\nThe particle の functions exactly like 's (apostrophe S) in English:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"{Migaku}の{Chrome}拡張機能[かくちょうきのう] は とても 便利[べんり] です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_MigakuのChrome拡張機能はとても便利です。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  Migaku **no** Chrome kakuchoukinou wa totemo benri desu.\u003Cbr>\n  Migaku's Chrome extension is very convenient.\n\nIt can also be used in the \"X の Y\" structure to mean \"The Y of X\", showing that Y somehow pertains to X.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"人生[じんせい] の 意味[いみ] は 何[なに] です か\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_人生の意味は何ですか.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  Jinsei **no** imi wa nan desu ka.\u003Cbr>\n  What is the meaning **of** life?\n\nYou can even combine these two structures together:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"秋田[あきた] 国際[こくさい] 教養[きょうよう] 大学[だいがく] の 日本語[にほんご] の 授業[じゅぎょう] は 楽[たの]しい です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_秋田国際教養大学の日本語の授業は楽しいです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  Akita kokusai kyouyou daigaku **no** nihongo **no** jyugyou wa tanoshii desu\u003Cbr>\n  Akita International University's Japanese courses are fun. \u003Cbr>_(Literally: AIU's \"courses of Japanese\" are fun.)_\n\n### ➡️ 3. Use the particle を to mark the direct object of a sentence\n\n\"[Direct object](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.grammarly.com\u002Fblog\u002Fgrammar\u002Fdirect-object\u002F)\" is a fancy linguistic term that basically refers to the thing you're doing. It's hard to define without using more fancy linguistic terms, so I'll instead give you a few examples and make the direct object bold:\n\n- I'm watching **a movie**.\n- The bear is eating **a pizza**.\n- She is reading **a big green history book.**\n\nA direct object is the movie you're watching, the pizza you're eating, and the history book you're reading.\n\nIn Japanese, you indicate that a particular thing is the direct object of a sentence by attaching the particle を (wo, pronounced \"oh\") to it:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"授業[じゅぎょう] で 映画[えいが] を 見[み,みる]ました{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_授業で映画を見ました。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  jyugyou de eiga **wo** mimasita.\u003Cbr>\n  (We) watched a movie in class.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"私[わたし] は 昨日[きのう]{、}パスタ を 食[た,たべる]べました{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_私は昨日、パスタを食べました。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  Watashi wa kinou, pasuta **wo** tabemashita.\u003Cbr>\n  Yesterday, I ate pasta.\n\nIt's difficult to translate を into English because we use word order to indicate that something is a verb's direct object in English, so try not to overthink things. As you consume content in Japanese and see more example sentences, you'll quickly build an intuitive feel for how to use を.\n\n### ➡️ 4. Use the particle に to show the direction of an action\n\nUse に to say where you're going. For example:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"飛行機[ひこうき] で 日本[にほん] に 行[ゆ,ゆく]きました{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_飛行機で日本に行きました。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  hikouki de nihon **ni** ikimashita. \u003Cbr>\n  I went **to** Japan by plane.\n\nYou can also use に to communicate direction in a more abstract sense, such as who an action is aimed at:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"友達[ともだち] に プレゼント を あげ[,あげる]ました{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_友達にプレゼントをあげました。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  hikouki de nihon **ni** ikimashita. \u003Cbr>\n  I gave a present **to** my friend.\n\nThe fancy way to explain this second usage of に is to say that it marks [indirect objects](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.grammarly.com\u002Fblog\u002Fgrammar\u002Findirect-object\u002F).\n\n\u003Caccordion heading=\"A more technical usage of に\">\n\nIf you skimmed through the advanced usages of が above, you'd have seen this example sentence:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"庭[にわ] に クマ が い[,いる]ます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo> \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja_庭にクマがいます。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  niwa **ni** kuma ga imasu.\u003Cbr>\n  There's a bear in the garden.\n\nAnd this, indeed, isn't communicating any sort of direction. This is beyond the scope of this article, but for now, just know that you will also see the particle に used to show where something exists, where something is, or where something is located.\n\n\u003C\u002Faccordion>\n\n### ➡️ 5. Use へ to show a more general direction\n\nThe particle へ is also used to show where you are going, and it is generally interchangeable with に when used to indicate direction. Strictly speaking, に is used to indicate a destination, whereas へ indicates a direction.\n\nDirection aside, there are a few set phrases that use へ:\n\n- ~へようこそ \u003Cbr>\n  ~ **he** youkoso \u003Cbr>\n  Welcome to (place)\n\n- 未来への(thing) \u003Cbr>\n  mirai **he** no \u003Cbr>\n  (Something) for the future\n\n### ➡️ 6. Use the particle と to say \"with\" and make quotes\n\nThe most basic use of the particle と is simply to communicate togetherness. As shown in the following examples, it usually translates to \"and\" or \"with\":\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"猫[ねこ] と 犬[いぬ] が 好[す]き です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-猫と犬が好きです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  neko **to** inu ga suki desu. \u003Cbr>\n  (I) like cats and dogs.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"私[わたし] は 昨日[きのう] 友達[ともだち] と 遊[あそ,あそぶ]びました{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-私は昨日友達と遊びました。.mp3\" :type=\"3\"> \u003C\u002Fcustom-audio>\u003Cbr>\n  watashi wa kinou tomodachi **to** asobimashita \u003Cbr>\n  Yesterday, I hung out (_lit: played_) with my friends.\n\nNext, と can be used to make both direct and indirect quotes:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"彼[かれ] は{、「}人生[じんせい] は 挑戦[ちょうせん] の 連続[れんぞく] だ{」}と 言[い,いう]った{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-彼は、「人生は挑戦の連続だ」と言った。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  kare wa, \"jinsei wa chousen no renzoku da\" **to** itta. \u003Cbr>\n  He said, \"life is a series of challenges.\"\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"山[やま] は{「}やま[,やむ]{」}と 呼[よ,よぶ]びます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-山は「やま」と呼びます。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  \"山\" wa yama **to** yobimasu. \u003Cbr>\n  \"山\" is pronounced \"yama\".\n\nYou will also see と used when making certain types of comparisons. You can learn these as you encounter them.\n\n### ➡️ 7. Use the particle で to show where an action takes place or the means by which an action is done\n\nThe particle で is used to show the location where something happens.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"公園[こうえん] で ご飯[ごはん] を 食[た,たべる]べました{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-公園でご飯を食べました。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  kouen **de** gohan wo tabimashita. \u003Cbr>\n  (I) ate (a meal) at the park.\n\nIt's also used to define the scope of a statement:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"世界[せかい] で 一番[いちばん] 長[なが]い 川[かわ] は ナイル{」}です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-世界で一番長い川はナイル」です。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  sekai **de** ichiban nagai kawa wa nairu desu. \u003Cbr>\n  The longest river in the world is the Nile.\n\nYou can also use で to show the means by which something is done, both in concrete and abstract contexts:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"バス で 学校[がっこう] に 行[ゆ,ゆく]きます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-バスで学校に行きます。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  basu **de** gakkou ni ikimasu. \u003Cbr>\n  (I) go to school by bus.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"木[き] で 机[つくえ] を 作[つく,つくる]ります{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-木で机を作ります。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  ki **de** tsukue wo tsukurimasu. \u003Cbr>\n  (I) will make a desk out of wood.\n\n### ➡️ 8. (Bonus) The particles から and より\n\nThe final two case particles are より and から.\n\nから indicates the origin of something, and can be used in a variety of contexts:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"カフェ から 来[く,くる]ました{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-カフェから来ました。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  kafe **kara** kimashita. \u003Cbr>\n  (I) came from the cafe.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"田中[たなか] さん から 本[ほん] を 借[か,かりる]りました{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-田中さんから本を借りました。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  Tanaka san **kara** hon wo karimashita. \u003Cbr>\n  (I) borrowed a book from Tanaka.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"アクセント から する と 日本人[にほんじん] で は ない よう です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-アクセントからすると日本人ではないようです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  akusento **kara** suru to, nihonjin dewanai you desu \u003Cbr>\n  Judging by (their) accent, (they) don't seem to be Japanese.\n\nより is used for making comparisons, and can be transated to \"than\".\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"クマ は 私[わたし] より 背[せ] が 高[たか]い です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-クマは私より背が高いです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  kuma wa watashi **yori** se ga takai desu \u003Cbr>\n  The bear is taller than me.\n\nAs shown in [our blog post on writing Japanese letters](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fhow-to-write-a-japanese-letter), より can also mean \"from\" in some specific contexts.\n\n- サミより \u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-サミより.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  Sami **yori** \u003Cbr>\n  From Sami\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"日本[にほん] より 愛[あい] を こめ[,こめる]て{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-日本より愛をこめて。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  nihon **yori** ai wo komete \u003Cbr>\n  From Japan, with love.\n\n---\n\n## The \"binding\" particle は\n\nAnd now we're ready to talk about the binding particle ( \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"係助詞[かかりじょし]\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-係助詞.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio>) は, pronounced _wa_.\n\nは is normally the first the particle taught by [textbooks, such as Genki](\u002Fblog\u002Fjapanese\u002Fbest-japanese-textbooks#genki-the-go-to-textbook-for-beginners). It's usually taught with this specific structure:\n\n- X は Y です。\u003Cbr>\n  X **wa** Y desu.\u003Cbr>\n  X is Y.\n\nThis makes it seem like は means \"to be\", and this misunderstanding causes all sorts of problems. I've introduced は last, and in a completely separate category of particles, to try to avoid this issue.\n\n### Case particles vs binding particles\n\nAs we said above, case particles indicate that a particular word in a sentence is playing a particular grammatical role. They simply _mark_ the the function of a word.\n\nRather than simply marking the function of a word, however, binding particles _add_ meaning to a word. When I look up 係助詞 in my Japanese dictionary, it's defined as:\n\n- JA: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"係[かかり] 助詞[じょし]は{、}種々[しゅじゅ] の 語[ご] に 付[つ,つく]き{、}その 語[ご] に 意味[いみ] を 添[そ]える と共[ととも]に{、}文[ぶん] の 終止[しゅうし] に まで 影響[えいきょう] を 及[およ]ぼす 助詞[じょし] で ある{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\n- EN: Binding particles attach to various words and add meaning to those words while also influencing the sentence’s ending.\n\nThis is really important to understand. The particle は is something you _add_ to a word when you want to give it additional nuance.\n\nIn particular, は is used to (a) add an element of contrast to a sentence, or (b) elevate an element of a sentence to the status of \"topic\".\n\n### Use は to show contrast\n\nThe first usage of は is pretty straightforward. It's used to add contrast to a sentence, as follows:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"お茶[おちゃ] は 飲[の,のむ]みます が{、}コーヒー は 飲[の,のむ]みません{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-お茶は飲みますが、コーヒーは飲みません。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  ocha **wa** nomimasu ga, koohii wa nomimasen. \u003Cbr>\n  I drink _tea_, but I don't drink _coffee_.\n\nHere, the contrast is that you _do_ drink tea, but you _don't_ drink something else.\n\nYou can also use は to hint at contrast. For example, let's look at that sentence about cats and dogs from earlier:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"猫[ねこ] と 犬[いぬ] が 好[す]き です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-猫と犬が好きです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  neko to inu ga suki desu. \u003Cbr>\n  (I) like cats and dogs.\n\nIf this person had expressed this same sort of idea but instead chose to use the contrastive は:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"{（}私[わたし] は{）}猫[ねこ] は 好[す]き です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-(私は)猫は好きです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  (watashi wa) neko **wa** suki desu.\n\nThen the nuance of the sentence would become \"(I) like cats _(but there's something else I don't like)_\".\n\n### Use は to indicate the topic of a sentence\n\nDon't think too hard about this: if something is the topic of a sentence, it's the thing that's being discussed. Here's how [a Japanese reference](https:\u002F\u002Fblog.navy-p.com\u002Fdependency-marker-ha\u002F) explains it:\n\n- JA: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"なお{、「}は{」}によって 題目[だいもく] を 示[しめ]す とき{、}題目[だいもく] の 箇所[かしょ] に は{“}提示[ていじ] し[,する]た 題目[だいもく] について{”}という 訳[わけ] が 当[あ,あてる]てられます{。}・・・中身[なかみ2] を 予告[よこく] する役割[やくわり]・・・\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\n- EN: When \"wa\" marks the topic, its function is to show that \"the sentence is about this\"... it serves to give a preview of the content of a sentence...\n\nWe don't have a grammar point that corresponds to は in English, so it can be difficult to wrap your head around. It's kind of like using a colon to introduce a list:\n\n- Milk tea: delicious, comes in mugs or bottles, sold in various countries around the world\n\nIt's as if you've held up a sign that says \"milk tea\", and everybody starts shouting things that apply to milk tea, and nobody is confused because the sign makes it very clear that the topic of discussion is milk tea.\n\nCompare the following two sentences:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"キリン の 首[くび] が 長[なが]い です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-キリンの首が長いです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  kirin **no** kubi ga nagai desu \u003Cbr>\n  Giraffe's necks are long.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"キリン は 首[くび] が 長[なが]い です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-キリンは首が長いです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  kirin **wa** kubi ga nagai desu \u003Cbr>\n  Giraffes—(their) necks are long.\n\nIn the first sentence, we're making a statement about giraffe's necks. In the second sentence, we establish \"giraffe\" as the topic, and \"necks are long\" thus becomes a comment that refers to giraffes.\n\n---\n\n## This is confusing! Japanese particles just don't make sense.\n\nIndeed. This isn't just you: everybody struggles with particles when they first start out. We just don't have anything like Japanese's particles in English, so you've got no frame of reference to tie this stuff to, and that's not your fault. There's logic to how the particles work, but it'll take time to put your finger on because the particles follow a different kind of logic than English sentence structure does.\n\nParticles will become second nature as you spend more time with Japanese, but until then, Migaku's Japanese Academy can get you started:\n\n\u003Cimg src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fmigaku-japanese-academy-mo.jpeg\" width=\"1642\" height=\"1152\" alt=\"A screenshot from Migaku's Japanese course, showing how we help users learn Japanese vocabulary and grammar\" \u002F>\n\nThe course follows an A:B format in which:\n\n- A → You learn about a grammar point\n- B → You use flashcards to learn sentences that feature that grammar point\n\nBut this isn't _just_ another deck of flashcards. It's been insanely carefully curated. Every flashcard introduces a single new word, giving it a very smooth learing curve. If you can keep consistent for about 6 months (at a pace of 10 flashcards per day), you'll have acquired the ~1,500 words you need to follow 80% of Japanese Netflix.\n\n\u003Cprose-button href=\"\u002Flearn-japanese\" text=\"Learn Japanese with Migaku\">\u003C\u002Fprose-button>\n\n---\n\n## Common sources of confusion\n\nMany of the particles have multiple meanings, and some of these meanings can appear quite similar. Now that we've talked about several of the basic particles, let's address a few common points of confusion.\n\n### に vs で\n\nに and で can be confusing because they both answer the question of \"where\". The key to distinguishing them is understanding that \"where\" is a pretty broad term that can ask for a few different types of information.\n\n- Use に if the answer to \"where\" is a direction of movement _or_ a place where something exists\u002Fresides\u002Fis\n- Use で if the answer to \"where\" is the location where something (an action) is being done\n\nFor example:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"学校[がっこう] で 昼[ひる]ごはん を 食[た,たべる]べます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-学校で昼ごはんを食べます。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  gakkou **de** hirugohan wo tabemasu. \u003Cbr>\n  (I) eat lunch at school. \u003Cbr>\n  → School is the _location_ where you are eating (doing something).\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"今[いま] 学校[がっこう] に い[,いる]ます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-今学校にいます.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  gakkou **ni** imasu. \u003Cbr>\n  (I'm) at school now. \u003Cbr>\n  → School is where you _are_ (your current location)\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"学校[がっこう] に 行[い]って い[,いる]ます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-学校に行っています.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  gakkou **ni** itteimasu \u003Cbr>\n  (I'm) going to school. \u003Cbr>\n  → You are in movement, and school is your destination\n\nSo while 学校で and 学校に are both correct, the _type_ of information that comes with each one is different.\n\n### に vs へ\n\nA long time ago, に and へ used to have different usages. At some point, へ began being used in similar situations as に. Today, they are largely interchangeable when communicating a direction of movement.\n\nIf we really want to split hairs, the nuance of each particle is slightly different:\n\n- に means \"to\": it emphasizes your destination, and shows specifically where you're going\n- へ means \"toward\": it emphasizes your direction in a more general fashion\n\nAnd this lets us make an important clarification:\n\n- へ can pretty much always replace に because, if you arrived to Tokyo, you must necessarily have also gone in the direction of Tokyo\n- に cannot always replace へ, because the fact that you're headed in the direction of Tokyo now doesn't mean that you'll arrive there or even that it's your intended destination—just like saying that you're headed north doesn't mean that you're going to the North Pole\n\n---\n\n### は vs が\n\nI agree with you: は vs が is tough.\n\nAs a matter of fact, Japanese people agree with you, too: somebody literally wrote [an entire book](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.amazon.co.jp\u002F「は」と「が」-新日本語文法選書-1-野田-尚史\u002Fdp\u002F487424128X) comparing the two particles. I'm not going to be able to do in a few paragraphs what took a Japanese linguist an entire book, so I'm going to take a different strategy with this section of the article.\n\n1. I'll talk through a sentence in which the topic and subject _aren't_ the same\n2. I'll translate some of the key points of the above book\n\n#### Differentiating subjects and topics\n\nPart of the trouble you're having is because, in English, the topic and subject of a sentence are pretty much alawys identical. I can't personally think of a natural sentence where they aren't, at least.\n\nSo let's look at this Japanese sentence I shared earlier:\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"キリン は 首[くび] が 長[なが]い です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-キリンは首が長いです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  kirin **wa** kubi **ga** nagai desu \u003Cbr>\n  Giraffes—(their) necks are long.\n\nI think it's pretty cool, from a linguistic perspective. That's because:\n\n- The _topic_ of this sentence is a giraffe\n- The _subject_ of this sentence is a neck\n\nWhich I understand is clear as mud.\n\nBut remember way back in the beginning of this article how I said that Japanese sentences revolve around the verb? That was a slight oversimplification. They actually revolve around what's called the predicate, which you can understand to be a verb _or_ a noun\u002Fadjective attached to です.\n\nWith this in mind, we're in a better position to break this sentence down:\n\n- The core of the sentence is _are long_\n- The subject particle が tells us _what_ is long—necks\n- The topic particle は tells us that the above two things are a comment about _something_—giraffes\n\nIt's hard to cleanly explain that with English logic, but if you pay attention, you'll see this topic-comment structure all over the place in Japanese. Eventually, it'll begin to feel natural.\n\nAnd now let's get into the rules of thumb.\n\n#### Use は to reference old information; use が to to introduce new information\n\nIf you're mentioning something for the first time, bring it up with が. After you've mentioned it once, you can use は to reference it.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"昔々[むかしむかし]{、}おじいさん と おばあさん\u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>おっ[,おる]た{。}おじいさん は 山[やま] へ 芝[しば] 刈[が]り に{、}おばあさん\u003Cstrong>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>川[かわ] へ 洗濯[せんたく] に 行[ゆ,ゆく]った{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-昔々、おじいさんとおばあさんがおった。おじいさんは山へ芝刈りに、おばあさんは川へ洗濯に行った。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  Once upon a time, there lived an old man and an old woman. The old man went to the mountains to cut firewood, and the old woman went to the river to do the laundry.\n\nNotice that we actually do the same sort of thing in English! If you mention something for the first time, you use _a_ or _an_. Once you've mentioned it, you can then use _the_ to reference that thing moving forward.\n\nConsider: _**A** man walked into a forest with a pizza. **The** man left the forest with no pizza. Oh, the intrigue!_\n\n#### Use は to make judgments; use が to make observations\n\nIf you're seeing something and somehow interpreting it—giving an opinion, casting a judgment, making an evaluation—use は. If you're making note of a natural phenomenon, something that exists independent of you and your thoughts, use が.\n\n- Judgment: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"あの 桜[さくら]\u003Cstrong>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>とても きれい だ{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-あの桜はとてもきれいだ。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  That sakura tree is very pretty. \u003Cbr>\n  → \"Pretty\" is a subjective judgment; you're giving your opinion.\n\n- Observation: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"雪[ゆき]\u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>降[ふ]って いる\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-雪が降っている.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  Snow is falling. \u003Cbr>\n  → This will happen regardless of whether you know, care, or exist.\n\n#### Use は for sentences; use が for clauses\n\nA _clause_ is a fancy grammatical term that refers to a chunk of a sentence. Some clauses can stand on their own (_Sami writes._), while other clauses can't make a full sentence by themselves (_If Sami writes..._).\n\nIn Japanese, you should use は when you introduce something that pertains to the entire sentence, but use が when introducing something that is only relevant within one clause of a sentence.\n\n- \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"昨日[きのう] 彼女[かのじょ]\u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>作[つく,つくる]った ケーキ\u003Cstrong>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>{、}とても おいしかった{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-昨日彼女が作ったケーキは、とてもおいしかった。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  The cake that the woman made yesterday was very delicious. \u003Cbr>\n  → The core of the sentence is \"it was very delciious\", and this statement applies to the cake, so the cake is marked with は\u003Cbr>\n  → \"that the woman made yesterday\" describes the cake, not \"it was very delicious\", so \"that the woman made yesterday\" is marked with が\n\nNotice that ケーキは、とてもおいしかった。 (\"the cake was very delicious\") works just fine as a complete sentence. The clause 昨日彼女が作った (\"that the woman made yesterday\") adds extra information that describes the cake, which is just one part of the sentence.\n\n#### Use は to introduce contrast; use が to point a finger\n\nIf you're trying to highlight a contrast between two things, or simply alluding to contrast, use は. If you're making a specific statement that exclusively applies to one specific thing, use が.\n\n- Contrast: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"お茶[ちゃ]\u003Cstrong>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>飲[の,のめる]めます が{、}コーヒー\u003Cstrong>は\u003C\u002Fstrong>飲[の,のめる]めません{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-お茶は飲めますが、コーヒーは飲めません。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  I can drink _tea_, but not _coffee_. \u003Cbr>\n  → † Yep! This is that same contrastive は that we talked about above.\n\n- Exclusivity: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"彼[かれ]\u003Cstrong>が\u003C\u002Fstrong>アメリカ人[あめりかじん] です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-彼がアメリカ人です。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  _He_ (specifically him, that guy \\[kinda feels like you're pointing a finger]) is American. \u003Cbr>\n  → Yep! This is the same thing we talked about in \"a few specific situations where が is used\".\n\n_† Note: Given this particular nuance, some Japanese linguists argue that the contrastive は doesn't actually exist. According to them, the contrastive nature that は gives to some sentences is a byproduct of making something a topic and lifting it \"above\" the sentence._\n\n#### Use は when stating a characteristic of something; use が or は when equating two things\n\nYou're going to need to work with me a bit on this one.\n\nImagine that we split a sentence in half and got something like {Part A:Part B}.\n\nIf \"part B\" is a characteristic of \"part A\", then you should use は:\n\n- Characteristic: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"チキン は 鳥[とり] です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-チキンは鳥です。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  Chickens are birds. \u003Cbr>\n  → It's always true that chickens are birds, but it's not always true that a given bird is a chicken. As such, \"chicken\" is not equivalent with \"bird\"; instead, \"bird\" is a quality\u002Fcharacteristic that applies to \"chicken\".\n\nIf \"Part B\" is the same thing as \"Part A\", then you can use either が or は, but your choice will affect how the sentence needs to be organized. You often run into this situation in statements where you could replace one of the halves with a question word, as shown below:\n\n- Equivalence: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"田中[たなか] さん が 先生[せんせい] です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-田中さんが先生です.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n\n  - Mr. Tanaka is the teacher. \u003Cbr>\n    → In this situation, \"Mr. Tanaka\" and \"the teacher\" are synonymous—they both indicate the asme person\n\n- Equivalence: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"先生[せんせい] は 田中[たなか] さん です{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-先生は田中さんです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  - The teacher is Mr. Tanaka. \u003Cbr>\n    → Flipping these two words doesn't change the meaning of the sentence.\n\nAs mentioned, we can replace \"Mr. Tanaka\" with a question word:\n\n- Question: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"誰[だれ] か ゙ 先生[せんせい] て ゙すか{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-誰が先生ですか.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n\n  - Who is the teacher?. \u003Cbr>\n    → Question words come before が\n\n- Question: \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"先生[せんせい] は 誰[だれ] て ゙すか{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-先生は誰ですか.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n  - The teacher is who? \u003Cbr>\n    → Question words come after は\n\nBoth of these two sentence pairs mean the same thing, the nuance is just a little different.\n\n- Remember the topic-comment structure we discussed in the は section? When we use は and establish Mr. Tanaka as the topic, the weight of the sentence gets placed on the comment: what _about_ Mr. Tanaka are we commenting? That he's the teacher.\n- Remember way back in the beginning of the article how we said that Japanese sentences revolve around the predicate? When you use が in these kinds of A=B sentences, you're emphasizing whatever comes before が. The point of interest is the thing that you're equating to the predicate.\n\n---\n\n## Some practice exercises\n\nThat was a lot of information. Let's pratcice a bit, to make sure you've got these particles down.\n\n1. \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"日本[にっぽん] ____ 行[い]きます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-日本に行きます。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n   (I'm) going to Japan. \u003Cbr>\n   Particle: を、に、が\n\n2. \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"昼[ひる]ごはん は 学校[がっこう] ____ 食[た,たべる]べます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-昼ごはんは学校で食べます。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n   (I) have lunch at school. \u003Cbr>\n   Particle: で、に、を\n\n3. \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"私[わたし] は 日本語[にほんご] ____ 勉強[べんきょう] し[,する]て い[,いる]ます{。}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-私は日本語を勉強しています。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n   I am studying Japanese. \u003Cbr>\n   Particle: が、と、を\n\n4. これ\\_\\_\\_\\_ペンです。\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-これはペンです。.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n   This is a pen. \u003Cbr>\n   Particle: は、から、と\n\n5. \u003Ctypo lang=\"ja\" syntax=\"作家[さっか] ____ 誰[だれ] ですか{？}\">\u003C\u002Ftypo>\u003Ccustom-audio src=\"\u002Fassets\u002Fblog\u002Fja-作家は誰ですか？.mp3\" :type=\"3\">\u003C\u002Fcustom-audio> \u003Cbr>\n   The author is who? \u003Cbr>\n   Particle: は、が\n\n\u003Caccordion heading=\"Click to see answers\">\n\n1. The answer is に because you are talking about where you are going.\n2. The answer is で because you are doing an action (eating) at school. You could use に to say that you were _going_ to school, or を to say what you were eating for lunch.\n3. The answer is を because Japanese is _what_ you are studying. You could use と to say who you are studying with.\n4. The answer is は. We've made \"this\" the topic of the sentence by marking it with は, and \"pen\" is something that pertains to the topic.\n5. The answer is は. Remember, we said that question words come after は. To use が, we would have to flip the sentence around: 誰が作家ですか？\n\n\u003C\u002Faccordion>\n\n---\n\n## Concluding thoughts\n\nParticles are little grammatical tags that get attached to words (or phrases) in a sentence in order to show what function those words and phrases have in the sentence. They can be difficult for English speakers to get used to because we use word order to do the job done by Japanese particles.\n\nIf you're feeling a little overwhelmed, that's OK. We covered a lot of information, and we don't expect you to memorize it. So long as you loosely understand what each particle does, you'll gradually develop a more accurate understanding of how it works as you consume more Japanese content and see more particles used in more sentences.\n\nGood luck!\n\n\\_P.S. — Wikipedia has a pretty [awesome list of Japanese particles and their usage](https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FJapanese_particles). There's a lot there, so don't try to memorize it, but go ahead and skim through it from time to time!\n",{"title":5,"description":2557},"article\u002Fjapanese\u002Fjapanese-particles","tP8sL11NI0dXasUf4TYgnNVPHTmbAiTPqtSgC95ScEU","October 31, 2024",{"approximate_member_count":2581},20104,null,[2584],{"id":4,"title":5,"body":2585,"description":2557,"extension":2558,"meta":4375,"navigation":2573,"path":2574,"rawbody":2575,"seo":4378,"stem":2577,"__hash__":2578,"timestampUnix":2560,"slug":2561,"h1":2562,"image":4376,"tags":4377},{"type":7,"value":2586,"toc":4343},[2587,2591,2597,2601,2611,2613,2615,2617,2619,2621,2628,2640,2642,2664,2666,2668,2673,2675,2693,2699,2701,2703,2711,2755,2757,2759,2761,2763,2765,2771,2773,2780,2782,2784,2794,2796,2798,2800,2802,2806,2816,2818,2828,2832,2834,2836,2838,2840,2852,2863,2865,2867,2869,2903,2909,3072,3074,3076,3078,3096,3098,3118,3120,3144,3146,3151,3165,3167,3169,3203,3205,3207,3209,3229,3231,3251,3256,3280,3282,3284,3286,3312,3314,3316,3352,3354,3388,3390,3392,3394,3412,3414,3432,3434,3468,3470,3472,3474,3524,3526,3544,3548,3580,3582,3584,3592,3596,3610,3612,3614,3618,3622,3630,3634,3636,3638,3640,3662,3668,3670,3686,3688,3702,3706,3708,3713,3721,3723,3727,3729,3731,3765,3767,3769,3771,3773,3775,3777,3779,3785,3789,3791,3793,3795,3797,3799,3801,3809,3811,3877,3881,3883,3885,3887,3893,3895,3901,3903,3905,3907,3912,3920,3922,3924,3926,3946,3948,3958,3960,3964,3966,3980,3982,3984,3986,3988,4000,4008,4016,4018,4020,4050,4052,4060,4062,4082,4084,4086,4088,4124,4128,4130,4132,4134,4136,4152,4154,4188,4190,4224,4226,4234,4236,4238,4240,4310,4328,4330,4332,4334,4336,4338],[10,2588,12,2589,18],{},[14,2590,17],{"href":16},[10,2592,21,2593,27,2595,33],{},[23,2594],{"lang":25,"syntax":26},[29,2596],{"src":31,":type":32},[10,2598,36,2599,41],{},[38,2600,40],{},[43,2602,2603,2607],{},[46,2604,48,2605,52],{},[29,2606],{"src":51,":type":32},[46,2608,55,2609,59],{},[29,2610],{"src":58,":type":32},[10,2612,62],{},[64,2614],{},[67,2616],{},[70,2618,73],{"id":72},[75,2620,78],{"id":77},[10,2622,81,2623,86,2625,93],{},[14,2624,85],{"href":84},[14,2626,92],{"href":89,"rel":2627},[91],[43,2629,2630,2635],{},[46,2631,98,2632,104],{},[14,2633,103],{"href":101,"rel":2634},[91],[46,2636,107,2637,104],{},[14,2638,112],{"href":110,"rel":2639},[91],[10,2641,115],{},[43,2643,2644,2654],{},[46,2645,120,2646],{},[38,2647,2648,127,2650,131,2652,135],{},[124,2649,126],{},[124,2651,130],{},[124,2653,134],{},[46,2655,138,2656],{},[38,2657,2658,127,2660,145,2662,148],{},[124,2659,126],{},[124,2661,134],{},[124,2663,130],{},[10,2665,151],{},[75,2667,155],{"id":154},[10,2669,158,2670,164],{},[14,2671,163],{"href":161,"rel":2672},[91],[10,2674,167],{},[43,2676,2677,2679,2681,2687],{},[46,2678,172],{},[46,2680,175],{},[46,2682,178,2683,27,2685,185],{},[23,2684],{"lang":25,"syntax":181},[29,2686,27],{"src":184,":type":32},[46,2688,188,2689,27,2691,195],{},[23,2690],{"lang":25,"syntax":191},[29,2692,27],{"src":194,":type":32},[10,2694,198,2695,202,2697,206],{},[38,2696,201],{},[38,2698,205],{},[75,2700,210],{"id":209},[10,2702,213],{},[215,2704,2705],{},[10,2706,219,2707,2709,225],{},[221,2708],{},[221,2710],{},[227,2712,2713,2722,2727,2739,2741,2749,2753],{"heading":229},[10,2714,232,2715,241,2720,245],{},[14,2716,237,2718],{"href":235,"rel":2717},[91],[38,2719,240],{},[38,2721,244],{},[10,2723,2724,253],{},[14,2725,252],{"href":250,"rel":2726},[91],[43,2728,2729,2737],{},[46,2730,258,2731,2733,2735],{},[23,2732],{"lang":25,"syntax":261},[221,2734],{},[23,2736],{"lang":25,"syntax":266},[46,2738,269],{},[10,2740,272],{},[43,2742,2743,2747],{},[46,2744,258,2745],{},[23,2746],{"lang":25,"syntax":279},[46,2748,282],{},[10,2750,285,2751,289],{},[29,2752,27],{"src":288,":type":32},[67,2754],{},[10,2756,294],{},[10,2758,297],{},[67,2760],{},[70,2762,303],{"id":302},[10,2764,306],{},[215,2766,2767],{},[10,2768,311,2769,314],{},[38,2770,40],{},[10,2772,317],{},[10,2774,320,2775,326,2778,330],{},[14,2776,325],{"href":323,"rel":2777},[91],[38,2779,329],{},[10,2781,333],{},[10,2783,336],{},[43,2785,2786,2790],{},[46,2787,2788,344],{},[124,2789,343],{},[46,2791,2792,350],{},[124,2793,349],{},[10,2795,353],{},[10,2797,356],{},[67,2799],{},[70,2801,362],{"id":361},[10,2803,365,2804,369],{},[38,2805,368],{},[43,2807,2808,2814],{},[46,2809,258,2810,2812],{},[23,2811],{"lang":25,"syntax":376},[29,2813,27],{"src":379,":type":32},[46,2815,382],{},[10,2817,385],{},[43,2819,2820,2824,2826],{},[46,2821,390,2822,394],{},[124,2823,393],{},[46,2825,397],{},[46,2827,400],{},[10,2829,403,2830,407],{},[38,2831,406],{},[10,2833,410],{},[10,2835,413],{},[67,2837],{},[70,2839,419],{"id":418},[10,2841,422,2842,428,2845,434,2848,27,2850,441],{},[14,2843,427],{"href":425,"rel":2844},[91],[14,2846,433],{"href":431,"rel":2847},[91],[23,2849],{"lang":25,"syntax":437},[29,2851,27],{"src":440,":type":32},[10,2853,444,2854,450,2857,456,2860,206],{},[14,2855,449],{"href":447,"rel":2856},[91],[14,2858,455],{"href":453,"rel":2859},[91],[14,2861,461],{"href":459,"rel":2862},[91],[10,2864,464],{},[75,2866,468],{"id":467},[10,2868,471],{},[43,2870,2871,2887],{},[46,2872,2873,479,2875,479,2877,2879,487,2881,491,2883,2885,496],{},[23,2874],{"lang":25,"syntax":478},[29,2876,479],{"src":482,":type":32},[221,2878],{},[221,2880],{},[124,2882,490],{},[221,2884],{},[221,2886],{},[46,2888,2889,479,2891,479,2893,2895,509,2897,512,2899,2901,517],{},[23,2890],{"lang":25,"syntax":501},[29,2892,479],{"src":504,":type":32},[221,2894],{},[221,2896],{},[124,2898,490],{},[221,2900],{},[221,2902],{},[215,2904,2905],{},[10,2906,522,2907,526],{},[38,2908,525],{},[227,2910,2911,532,2913,2915,2917,2921,2939,2943,2961,2963,2965,2999,3001,3012,3030,3032,3034,3036,3056,3058],{"heading":529},[221,2912],{},[534,2914,537],{"id":536},[10,2916,540],{},[10,2918,543,2919,547],{},[38,2920,546],{},[43,2922,2923],{},[46,2924,2925,479,2927,479,2929,2931,562,2933,565,2935,2937,570],{},[23,2926],{"lang":25,"syntax":554},[29,2928,479],{"src":557,":type":32},[221,2930],{},[221,2932],{},[124,2934,490],{},[221,2936],{},[221,2938],{},[10,2940,543,2941,576],{},[38,2942,575],{},[43,2944,2945],{},[46,2946,2947,479,2949,479,2951,2953,591,2955,594,2957,2959,599],{},[23,2948],{"lang":25,"syntax":583},[29,2950,479],{"src":586,":type":32},[221,2952],{},[221,2954],{},[124,2956,490],{},[221,2958],{},[221,2960],{},[534,2962,603],{"id":602},[10,2964,606],{},[43,2966,2967,2983],{},[46,2968,2969,479,2971,479,2973,2975,621,2977,624,2979,2981,629],{},[23,2970],{"lang":25,"syntax":613},[29,2972,479],{"src":616,":type":32},[221,2974],{},[221,2976],{},[124,2978,490],{},[221,2980],{},[221,2982],{},[46,2984,2985,479,2987,479,2989,2991,642,2993,645,2995,2997,650],{},[23,2986],{"lang":25,"syntax":634},[29,2988,479],{"src":637,":type":32},[221,2990],{},[221,2992],{},[124,2994,490],{},[221,2996],{},[221,2998],{},[534,3000,654],{"id":653},[10,3002,657,3003,663,3006,667,3008,675],{},[14,3004,662],{"href":660,"rel":3005},[91],[38,3007,666],{},[38,3009,670,3010,674],{},[124,3011,673],{},[43,3013,3014],{},[46,3015,3016,479,3018,479,3020,3022,690,3024,693,3026,3028,698],{},[23,3017],{"lang":25,"syntax":682},[29,3019,479],{"src":685,":type":32},[221,3021],{},[221,3023],{},[124,3025,490],{},[221,3027],{},[221,3029],{},[534,3031,702],{"id":701},[10,3033,705],{},[10,3035,708],{},[43,3037,3038],{},[46,3039,3040,479,3042,479,3044,3046,723,3048,726,3050,3052,3054,734],{},[23,3041],{"lang":25,"syntax":715},[29,3043,479],{"src":718,":type":32},[221,3045],{},[221,3047],{},[124,3049,490],{},[221,3051],{},[221,3053],{},[38,3055,733],{},[10,3057,737],{},[43,3059,3060,3064,3068],{},[46,3061,742,3062],{},[38,3063,745],{},[46,3065,748,3066],{},[38,3067,751],{},[46,3069,754,3070],{},[38,3071,757],{},[10,3073,760],{},[75,3075,764],{"id":763},[10,3077,767],{},[43,3079,3080],{},[46,3081,3082,479,3084,479,3086,3088,782,3090,786,3092,3094,791],{},[23,3083],{"lang":25,"syntax":774},[29,3085,479],{"src":777,":type":32},[221,3087],{},[221,3089],{},[124,3091,785],{},[221,3093],{},[221,3095],{},[10,3097,794],{},[43,3099,3100],{},[46,3101,3102,479,3104,479,3106,3108,809,3110,812,3112,3114,817,3116,820],{},[23,3103],{"lang":25,"syntax":801},[29,3105,479],{"src":804,":type":32},[221,3107],{},[221,3109],{},[124,3111,785],{},[221,3113],{},[221,3115],{},[124,3117,393],{},[10,3119,823],{},[43,3121,3122],{},[46,3123,3124,479,3126,479,3128,3130,838,3132,841,3134,844,3136,3138,849,3140,3142],{},[23,3125],{"lang":25,"syntax":830},[29,3127,479],{"src":833,":type":32},[221,3129],{},[221,3131],{},[124,3133,785],{},[124,3135,785],{},[221,3137],{},[221,3139],{},[221,3141],{},[38,3143,854],{},[75,3145,858],{"id":857},[10,3147,861,3148,867],{},[14,3149,866],{"href":864,"rel":3150},[91],[43,3152,3153,3157,3161],{},[46,3154,872,3155,206],{},[124,3156,875],{},[46,3158,878,3159,206],{},[124,3160,134],{},[46,3162,883,3163],{},[124,3164,886],{},[10,3166,889],{},[10,3168,892],{},[43,3170,3171,3187],{},[46,3172,3173,479,3175,479,3177,3179,907,3181,911,3183,3185,916],{},[23,3174],{"lang":25,"syntax":899},[29,3176,479],{"src":902,":type":32},[221,3178],{},[221,3180],{},[124,3182,910],{},[221,3184],{},[221,3186],{},[46,3188,3189,479,3191,479,3193,3195,929,3197,932,3199,3201,937],{},[23,3190],{"lang":25,"syntax":921},[29,3192,479],{"src":924,":type":32},[221,3194],{},[221,3196],{},[124,3198,910],{},[221,3200],{},[221,3202],{},[10,3204,940],{},[75,3206,944],{"id":943},[10,3208,947],{},[43,3210,3211],{},[46,3212,3213,479,3215,479,3217,3219,962,3221,966,3223,3225,971,3227,975],{},[23,3214],{"lang":25,"syntax":954},[29,3216,479],{"src":957,":type":32},[221,3218],{},[221,3220],{},[124,3222,965],{},[221,3224],{},[221,3226],{},[124,3228,974],{},[10,3230,978],{},[43,3232,3233],{},[46,3234,3235,479,3237,479,3239,3241,962,3243,966,3245,3247,999,3249,1002],{},[23,3236],{"lang":25,"syntax":985},[29,3238,479],{"src":988,":type":32},[221,3240],{},[221,3242],{},[124,3244,965],{},[221,3246],{},[221,3248],{},[124,3250,974],{},[10,3252,1005,3253,206],{},[14,3254,1010],{"href":1008,"rel":3255},[91],[227,3257,3258,3260,3278],{"heading":1013},[10,3259,1016],{},[43,3261,3262],{},[46,3263,3264,479,3266,479,3268,3270,1029,3272,1032,3274,3276,599],{},[23,3265],{"lang":25,"syntax":583},[29,3267,479],{"src":586,":type":32},[221,3269],{},[221,3271],{},[124,3273,965],{},[221,3275],{},[221,3277],{},[10,3279,1039],{},[75,3281,1043],{"id":1042},[10,3283,1046],{},[10,3285,1049],{},[43,3287,3288,3300],{},[46,3289,1054,3290,3292,1059,3294,1063,3296,3298,1068],{},[221,3291],{},[221,3293],{},[124,3295,1062],{},[221,3297],{},[221,3299],{},[46,3301,1071,3302,3304,1076,3306,1079,3308,3310,1084],{},[221,3303],{},[221,3305],{},[124,3307,1062],{},[221,3309],{},[221,3311],{},[75,3313,1088],{"id":1087},[10,3315,1091],{},[43,3317,3318,3334],{},[46,3319,3320,3322,479,3324,3326,1106,3328,1109,3330,3332,1114],{},[23,3321],{"lang":25,"syntax":1098},[29,3323],{"src":1101,":type":32},[221,3325],{},[221,3327],{},[124,3329,974],{},[221,3331],{},[221,3333],{},[46,3335,3336,3338,3340,3342,1127,3344,1130,3346,3348,1135,3350,1139],{},[23,3337],{"lang":25,"syntax":1119},[29,3339,479],{"src":1122,":type":32},[221,3341],{},[221,3343],{},[124,3345,974],{},[221,3347],{},[221,3349],{},[38,3351,1138],{},[10,3353,1142],{},[43,3355,3356,3372],{},[46,3357,3358,3360,479,3362,3364,1157,3366,1160,3368,3370,1165],{},[23,3359],{"lang":25,"syntax":1149},[29,3361],{"src":1152,":type":32},[221,3363],{},[221,3365],{},[124,3367,974],{},[221,3369],{},[221,3371],{},[46,3373,3374,3376,479,3378,3380,1178,3382,1181,3384,3386,1186],{},[23,3375],{"lang":25,"syntax":1170},[29,3377],{"src":1173,":type":32},[221,3379],{},[221,3381],{},[124,3383,974],{},[221,3385],{},[221,3387],{},[10,3389,1189],{},[75,3391,1193],{"id":1192},[10,3393,1196],{},[43,3395,3396],{},[46,3397,3398,3400,479,3402,3404,1211,3406,1215,3408,3410,1220],{},[23,3399],{"lang":25,"syntax":1203},[29,3401],{"src":1206,":type":32},[221,3403],{},[221,3405],{},[124,3407,1214],{},[221,3409],{},[221,3411],{},[10,3413,1223],{},[43,3415,3416],{},[46,3417,3418,3420,479,3422,3424,1238,3426,1241,3428,3430,1246],{},[23,3419],{"lang":25,"syntax":1230},[29,3421],{"src":1233,":type":32},[221,3423],{},[221,3425],{},[124,3427,1214],{},[221,3429],{},[221,3431],{},[10,3433,1249],{},[43,3435,3436,3452],{},[46,3437,3438,3440,479,3442,3444,1264,3446,1267,3448,3450,1272],{},[23,3439],{"lang":25,"syntax":1256},[29,3441],{"src":1259,":type":32},[221,3443],{},[221,3445],{},[124,3447,1214],{},[221,3449],{},[221,3451],{},[46,3453,3454,3456,479,3458,3460,1285,3462,1288,3464,3466,1293],{},[23,3455],{"lang":25,"syntax":1277},[29,3457],{"src":1280,":type":32},[221,3459],{},[221,3461],{},[124,3463,1214],{},[221,3465],{},[221,3467],{},[75,3469,1297],{"id":1296},[10,3471,1300],{},[10,3473,1303],{},[43,3475,3476,3492,3508],{},[46,3477,3478,3480,479,3482,3484,1318,3486,1322,3488,3490,1327],{},[23,3479],{"lang":25,"syntax":1310},[29,3481],{"src":1313,":type":32},[221,3483],{},[221,3485],{},[124,3487,1321],{},[221,3489],{},[221,3491],{},[46,3493,3494,3496,479,3498,3500,1340,3502,1343,3504,3506,1348],{},[23,3495],{"lang":25,"syntax":1332},[29,3497],{"src":1335,":type":32},[221,3499],{},[221,3501],{},[124,3503,1321],{},[221,3505],{},[221,3507],{},[46,3509,3510,3512,479,3514,3516,1361,3518,1364,3520,3522,1369],{},[23,3511],{"lang":25,"syntax":1353},[29,3513],{"src":1356,":type":32},[221,3515],{},[221,3517],{},[124,3519,1321],{},[221,3521],{},[221,3523],{},[10,3525,1372],{},[43,3527,3528],{},[46,3529,3530,3532,479,3534,3536,1387,3538,1391,3540,3542,1396],{},[23,3531],{"lang":25,"syntax":1379},[29,3533],{"src":1382,":type":32},[221,3535],{},[221,3537],{},[124,3539,1390],{},[221,3541],{},[221,3543],{},[10,3545,1399,3546,1404],{},[14,3547,1403],{"href":1402},[43,3549,3550,3564],{},[46,3551,1409,3552,27,3554,3556,1417,3558,27,3560,3562,1424],{},[29,3553],{"src":1412,":type":32},[221,3555],{},[221,3557],{},[124,3559,1390],{},[221,3561],{},[221,3563],{},[46,3565,3566,3568,479,3570,3572,1437,3574,1440,3576,3578,1445],{},[23,3567],{"lang":25,"syntax":1429},[29,3569],{"src":1432,":type":32},[221,3571],{},[221,3573],{},[124,3575,1390],{},[221,3577],{},[221,3579],{},[67,3581],{},[70,3583,1451],{"id":1450},[10,3585,1454,3586,3588,1461,3590,206],{},[23,3587],{"lang":25,"syntax":1457},[29,3589],{"src":1460,":type":32},[38,3591,1464],{},[10,3593,1467,3594,1472],{},[14,3595,1471],{"href":1470},[43,3597,3598],{},[46,3599,1477,3600,3602,1482,3604,1485,3606,3608,1490],{},[221,3601],{},[221,3603],{},[124,3605,1464],{},[221,3607],{},[221,3609],{},[10,3611,1493],{},[75,3613,1497],{"id":1496},[10,3615,1500,3616,1504],{},[38,3617,1503],{},[10,3619,1507,3620,1511],{},[38,3621,1510],{},[43,3623,3624,3628],{},[46,3625,258,3626],{},[23,3627],{"lang":25,"syntax":1518},[46,3629,1521],{},[10,3631,1524,3632,1527],{},[38,3633,1510],{},[10,3635,1530],{},[75,3637,1534],{"id":1533},[10,3639,1537],{},[43,3641,3642],{},[46,3643,3644,3646,479,3648,3650,1552,3652,1555,3654,3656,1560,3658,1564,3660,1568],{},[23,3645],{"lang":25,"syntax":1544},[29,3647],{"src":1547,":type":32},[221,3649],{},[221,3651],{},[124,3653,1464],{},[221,3655],{},[221,3657],{},[38,3659,1563],{},[38,3661,1567],{},[10,3663,1571,3664,1575,3666,1579],{},[38,3665,1574],{},[38,3667,1578],{},[10,3669,1582],{},[43,3671,3672],{},[46,3673,3674,3676,479,3678,3680,1595,3682,3684,1114],{},[23,3675],{"lang":25,"syntax":1098},[29,3677],{"src":1101,":type":32},[221,3679],{},[221,3681],{},[221,3683],{},[221,3685],{},[10,3687,1602],{},[43,3689,3690],{},[46,3691,3692,3694,479,3696,3698,1617,3700,1620],{},[23,3693],{"lang":25,"syntax":1609},[29,3695],{"src":1612,":type":32},[221,3697],{},[221,3699],{},[124,3701,1464],{},[10,3703,1623,3704,1627],{},[38,3705,1626],{},[75,3707,1631],{"id":1630},[10,3709,1634,3710,1640],{},[14,3711,1639],{"href":1637,"rel":3712},[91],[43,3714,3715,3719],{},[46,3716,258,3717],{},[23,3718],{"lang":25,"syntax":1647},[46,3720,1650],{},[10,3722,1653],{},[43,3724,3725],{},[46,3726,1658],{},[10,3728,1661],{},[10,3730,1664],{},[43,3732,3733,3749],{},[46,3734,3735,3737,479,3739,3741,1679,3743,1682,3745,3747,1687],{},[23,3736],{"lang":25,"syntax":1671},[29,3738],{"src":1674,":type":32},[221,3740],{},[221,3742],{},[124,3744,785],{},[221,3746],{},[221,3748],{},[46,3750,3751,3753,479,3755,3757,1679,3759,1682,3761,3763,1706],{},[23,3752],{"lang":25,"syntax":1692},[29,3754],{"src":1695,":type":32},[221,3756],{},[221,3758],{},[124,3760,1464],{},[221,3762],{},[221,3764],{},[10,3766,1709],{},[67,3768],{},[70,3770,1715],{"id":1714},[10,3772,1718],{},[10,3774,1721],{},[1723,3776],{"src":1725,"width":1726,"height":1727,"alt":1728},[10,3778,1731],{},[43,3780,3781,3783],{},[46,3782,1736],{},[46,3784,1739],{},[10,3786,1742,3787,1746],{},[38,3788,1745],{},[1748,3790],{"href":16,"text":1750},[67,3792],{},[70,3794,1756],{"id":1755},[10,3796,1759],{},[75,3798,1763],{"id":1762},[10,3800,1766],{},[43,3802,3803,3807],{},[46,3804,1771,3805,1775],{},[38,3806,1774],{},[46,3808,1778],{},[10,3810,1781],{},[43,3812,3813,3835,3857],{},[46,3814,3815,3817,479,3819,3821,1796,3823,1799,3825,3827,1804,3829,3831,1809,3833,1813],{},[23,3816],{"lang":25,"syntax":1788},[29,3818],{"src":1791,":type":32},[221,3820],{},[221,3822],{},[124,3824,1214],{},[221,3826],{},[221,3828],{},[221,3830],{},[221,3832],{},[38,3834,1812],{},[46,3836,3837,3839,479,3841,3843,1796,3845,1828,3847,3849,1833,3851,3853,1838,3855,1842],{},[23,3838],{"lang":25,"syntax":1818},[29,3840],{"src":1821,":type":32},[221,3842],{},[221,3844],{},[124,3846,965],{},[221,3848],{},[221,3850],{},[221,3852],{},[221,3854],{},[38,3856,1841],{},[46,3858,3859,3861,479,3863,3865,1796,3867,1857,3869,3871,1862,3873,3875,1867],{},[23,3860],{"lang":25,"syntax":1847},[29,3862],{"src":1850,":type":32},[221,3864],{},[221,3866],{},[124,3868,965],{},[221,3870],{},[221,3872],{},[221,3874],{},[221,3876],{},[10,3878,1870,3879,1874],{},[38,3880,1873],{},[75,3882,1878],{"id":1877},[10,3884,1881],{},[10,3886,1884],{},[43,3888,3889,3891],{},[46,3890,1889],{},[46,3892,1892],{},[10,3894,1895],{},[43,3896,3897,3899],{},[46,3898,1900],{},[46,3900,1903],{},[67,3902],{},[75,3904,1909],{"id":1908},[10,3906,1912],{},[10,3908,1915,3909,1921],{},[14,3910,1920],{"href":1918,"rel":3911},[91],[1923,3913,3914,3918],{},[46,3915,1927,3916,1931],{},[38,3917,1930],{},[46,3919,1934],{},[534,3921,1938],{"id":1937},[10,3923,1941],{},[10,3925,1944],{},[43,3927,3928],{},[46,3929,3930,3932,479,3934,3936,1679,3938,1959,3940,1962,3942,3944,1706],{},[23,3931],{"lang":25,"syntax":1692},[29,3933],{"src":1695,":type":32},[221,3935],{},[221,3937],{},[124,3939,1464],{},[124,3941,490],{},[221,3943],{},[221,3945],{},[10,3947,1969],{},[43,3949,3950,3954],{},[46,3951,1974,3952,1978],{},[38,3953,1977],{},[46,3955,1974,3956,1984],{},[38,3957,1983],{},[10,3959,1987],{},[10,3961,1990,3962,1993],{},[38,3963,1774],{},[10,3965,1996],{},[43,3967,3968,3972,3976],{},[46,3969,2001,3970],{},[38,3971,2004],{},[46,3973,2007,3974,2011],{},[38,3975,2010],{},[46,3977,2014,3978,2018],{},[38,3979,2017],{},[10,3981,2021],{},[10,3983,2024],{},[534,3985,2028],{"id":2027},[10,3987,2031],{},[43,3989,3990],{},[46,3991,3992,3994,479,3996,3998,2046],{},[23,3993],{"lang":25,"syntax":2038},[29,3995],{"src":2041,":type":32},[221,3997],{},[221,3999],{},[10,4001,2049,4002,2052,4004,2056,4006,2060],{},[38,4003,14],{},[38,4005,2055],{},[38,4007,2059],{},[10,4009,2063,4010],{},[38,4011,4012,2069,4014,2073],{},[124,4013,2068],{},[124,4015,2072],{},[534,4017,2077],{"id":2076},[10,4019,2080],{},[43,4021,4022,4036],{},[46,4023,2085,4024,4026,27,4028,4030,2096,4032,4034,2101],{},[23,4025],{"lang":25,"syntax":2088},[29,4027],{"src":2091,":type":32},[221,4029],{},[221,4031],{},[221,4033],{},[221,4035],{},[46,4037,2104,4038,4040,27,4042,4044,2115,4046,4048,2120],{},[23,4039],{"lang":25,"syntax":2107},[29,4041],{"src":2110,":type":32},[221,4043],{},[221,4045],{},[221,4047],{},[221,4049],{},[534,4051,2124],{"id":2123},[10,4053,2127,4054,2130,4056,2134,4058,2138],{},[38,4055,244],{},[38,4057,2133],{},[38,4059,2137],{},[10,4061,2141],{},[43,4063,4064],{},[46,4065,4066,4068,479,4070,4072,2156,4074,4076,2161,4078,4080,2166],{},[23,4067],{"lang":25,"syntax":2148},[29,4069],{"src":2151,":type":32},[221,4071],{},[221,4073],{},[221,4075],{},[221,4077],{},[221,4079],{},[221,4081],{},[10,4083,2169],{},[534,4085,2173],{"id":2172},[10,4087,2176],{},[43,4089,4090,4108],{},[46,4091,2181,4092,4094,27,4096,4098,2192,4100,2195,4102,2198,4104,4106,2203],{},[23,4093],{"lang":25,"syntax":2184},[29,4095],{"src":2187,":type":32},[221,4097],{},[221,4099],{},[38,4101,1563],{},[38,4103,1567],{},[221,4105],{},[221,4107],{},[46,4109,2206,4110,4112,27,4114,4116,4118,2220,4120,4122,2225],{},[23,4111],{"lang":25,"syntax":2209},[29,4113],{"src":2212,":type":32},[221,4115],{},[221,4117],{},[38,4119,2219],{},[221,4121],{},[221,4123],{},[10,4125,4126],{},[38,4127,2230],{},[534,4129,2234],{"id":2233},[10,4131,2237],{},[10,4133,2240],{},[10,4135,2243],{},[43,4137,4138],{},[46,4139,2248,4140,4142,27,4144,4146,2259,4148,4150,2264],{},[23,4141],{"lang":25,"syntax":2251},[29,4143],{"src":2254,":type":32},[221,4145],{},[221,4147],{},[221,4149],{},[221,4151],{},[10,4153,2267],{},[43,4155,4156,4172],{},[46,4157,2272,4158,4160,27,4162,4164],{},[23,4159],{"lang":25,"syntax":2275},[29,4161],{"src":2278,":type":32},[221,4163],{},[43,4165,4166],{},[46,4167,2285,4168,4170,2290],{},[221,4169],{},[221,4171],{},[46,4173,2272,4174,4176,27,4178,4180],{},[23,4175],{"lang":25,"syntax":2295},[29,4177],{"src":2298,":type":32},[221,4179],{},[43,4181,4182],{},[46,4183,2305,4184,4186,2310],{},[221,4185],{},[221,4187],{},[10,4189,2313],{},[43,4191,4192,4208],{},[46,4193,2318,4194,4196,27,4198,4200],{},[23,4195],{"lang":25,"syntax":2321},[29,4197],{"src":2324,":type":32},[221,4199],{},[43,4201,4202],{},[46,4203,2331,4204,4206,2336],{},[221,4205],{},[221,4207],{},[46,4209,2318,4210,4212,27,4214,4216],{},[23,4211],{"lang":25,"syntax":2341},[29,4213],{"src":2344,":type":32},[221,4215],{},[43,4217,4218],{},[46,4219,2351,4220,4222,2356],{},[221,4221],{},[221,4223],{},[10,4225,2359],{},[43,4227,4228,4232],{},[46,4229,2364,4230,2368],{},[38,4231,2367],{},[46,4233,2371],{},[67,4235],{},[70,4237,2377],{"id":2376},[10,4239,2380],{},[1923,4241,4242,4256,4270,4284,4296],{},[46,4243,4244,4246,479,4248,4250,2395,4252,4254,2400],{},[23,4245],{"lang":25,"syntax":2387},[29,4247],{"src":2390,":type":32},[221,4249],{},[221,4251],{},[221,4253],{},[221,4255],{},[46,4257,4258,4260,479,4262,4264,2413,4266,4268,2418],{},[23,4259],{"lang":25,"syntax":2405},[29,4261],{"src":2408,":type":32},[221,4263],{},[221,4265],{},[221,4267],{},[221,4269],{},[46,4271,4272,4274,479,4276,4278,2431,4280,4282,2436],{},[23,4273],{"lang":25,"syntax":2423},[29,4275],{"src":2426,":type":32},[221,4277],{},[221,4279],{},[221,4281],{},[221,4283],{},[46,4285,2439,4286,27,4288,4290,2447,4292,4294,2452],{},[29,4287],{"src":2442,":type":32},[221,4289],{},[221,4291],{},[221,4293],{},[221,4295],{},[46,4297,4298,4300,479,4302,4304,2465,4306,4308,2470],{},[23,4299],{"lang":25,"syntax":2457},[29,4301],{"src":2460,":type":32},[221,4303],{},[221,4305],{},[221,4307],{},[221,4309],{},[227,4311,4312],{"heading":2473},[1923,4313,4314,4316,4320,4324,4326],{},[46,4315,2478],{},[46,4317,2481,4318,2485],{},[38,4319,2484],{},[46,4321,2488,4322,2491],{},[38,4323,2010],{},[46,4325,2494],{},[46,4327,2497],{},[67,4329],{},[70,4331,2503],{"id":2502},[10,4333,2506],{},[10,4335,2509],{},[10,4337,2512],{},[10,4339,2515,4340,2521],{},[14,4341,2520],{"href":2518,"rel":4342},[91],{"title":2523,"searchDepth":2524,"depth":2524,"links":4344},[4345,4350,4351,4352,4362,4367,4368,4373,4374],{"id":72,"depth":2524,"text":73,"children":4346},[4347,4348,4349],{"id":77,"depth":2529,"text":78},{"id":154,"depth":2529,"text":155},{"id":209,"depth":2529,"text":210},{"id":302,"depth":2524,"text":303},{"id":361,"depth":2524,"text":362},{"id":418,"depth":2524,"text":419,"children":4353},[4354,4355,4356,4357,4358,4359,4360,4361],{"id":467,"depth":2529,"text":468},{"id":763,"depth":2529,"text":764},{"id":857,"depth":2529,"text":858},{"id":943,"depth":2529,"text":944},{"id":1042,"depth":2529,"text":1043},{"id":1087,"depth":2529,"text":1088},{"id":1192,"depth":2529,"text":1193},{"id":1296,"depth":2529,"text":1297},{"id":1450,"depth":2524,"text":1451,"children":4363},[4364,4365,4366],{"id":1496,"depth":2529,"text":1497},{"id":1533,"depth":2529,"text":1534},{"id":1630,"depth":2529,"text":1631},{"id":1714,"depth":2524,"text":1715},{"id":1755,"depth":2524,"text":1756,"children":4369},[4370,4371,4372],{"id":1762,"depth":2529,"text":1763},{"id":1877,"depth":2529,"text":1878},{"id":1908,"depth":2529,"text":1909},{"id":2376,"depth":2524,"text":2377},{"id":2502,"depth":2524,"text":2503},{"timestampUnix":2560,"slug":2561,"h1":2562,"image":4376,"tags":4377},{"src":2564,"width":2565,"height":2566,"alt":2567},[2569,2570,2571,2572],{"title":5,"description":2557},[4380,4397,4411],{"id":4381,"documentId":4382,"slug":4383,"category":4384,"lang":2582,"title":4385,"description":4386,"image":4387,"tags":4393,"timestampUnix":4396,"featured":4392},5846,"q6j9qy3whoetrn9x84kd4wkl","japanese-weather-phrases-daily-conversation","japanese","Japanese Weather Phrases for Daily Conversation","Learn common Japanese weather phrases for everyday conversations. Master essential vocabulary like sunny, rainy, and temperature descriptions with examples.",{"alt":4388,"src":4389,"width":4390,"height":4391,"previewOnly":4392},"Common Japanese weather phrases for daily conversation - Banner","https:\u002F\u002Fmigaku-cms-assets.migaku.com\u002F890940_ea2b811b0b\u002F890940_ea2b811b0b.jpg",1000,800,false,[4394,4395],"vocabulary","phrases","1775617200000",{"id":4398,"documentId":4399,"slug":4400,"category":4384,"lang":2582,"title":4401,"description":4402,"image":4403,"tags":4408,"timestampUnix":4410,"featured":4392},5791,"mghyyz4xqti9ey9umxvv14n4","japanese-weather-forecast-vocabulary","Japanese Weather Forecast Vocabulary Guide for Learners","Learn essential Japanese weather forecast vocabulary, from basic conditions to typhoon warnings. Understand forecasts, apps, and daily weather conversations in Japan.",{"alt":4404,"src":4405,"width":4406,"height":4407,"previewOnly":4392},"Understanding Japanese weather forecasts and reports - Banner","https:\u002F\u002Fmigaku-cms-assets.migaku.com\u002Fjapanese_words_for_sun_1024x683_9f15277e13\u002Fjapanese_words_for_sun_1024x683_9f15277e13.jpg",1024,683,[4394,4409,4395],"culture","1775523600000",{"id":4412,"documentId":4413,"slug":4414,"category":4384,"lang":2582,"title":4415,"description":4416,"image":4417,"tags":4421,"timestampUnix":4422,"featured":4392},5707,"teuv5pirp5rt5zcdvmfh28sy","japanese-hospital-vocabulary","Japanese Hospital Vocabulary: Medical Terms You Need to Know","Learn essential japanese hospital vocabulary for doctor visits, symptoms, medicine, and emergencies. Practical phrases to navigate Japan's healthcare system.",{"alt":4418,"src":4419,"width":4390,"height":4420,"previewOnly":4392},"Japanese medical and hospital vocabulary - Banner","https:\u002F\u002Fmigaku-cms-assets.migaku.com\u002F496890_6ececf90f3\u002F496890_6ececf90f3.jpg",979,[4394,4395],"1775430000000"]